A content analysis of 48 hours of prime time television reveals that sexual harassment on television is both highly visible and invisible. Sexual harassment is rendered visible simply by its prominence in these programs. Incidences involving quid pro quo harassment and environmental harassment occur with regularity on television. Eighty-four percent of the shows studied contained at least one incident of sexual harassment; the average was 3.4. Yet these acts of sexual harassment remain largely invisible in that none of the behaviors was labeled as sexual harassment. They are presented in humorous ways, and victims are generally unharmed and very effective at ending the harassment. Although such programs may actually reflect the reality of many women's lives in terms of prevalence of sexual harassment, they perpetuate several myths about sexual harassment, such as that sexual harassment is not serious and that victims should be able to handle the situations themselves.

Adams, J. W. , Kottke, J. L., & Padgett, J. S. (1983). Sexual harassment of university students. Journal of College Personnel, 24, 484-491. Google Scholar
Atkin, D. J. , Moorman, J., & Lin, C. A. (1991). Ready for prime time: Network series devoted to working women in the 1980s. Sex Roles, 25, 677-685. Google Scholar, Crossref
Axelrod, J. (1993). Sexual harassment in the movies and its effect on the audience. In G. Kreps (Ed.), Sexual harassment: Communication implications (pp. 107-117). Cresskill, NJ: Hampton Press. Google Scholar
Benson, K. (1984). Comment on Crocker's “An analysis of university definitions of sexual harassment.” Signs, 9, 516-519. Google Scholar, Crossref
Bill, B. , & Naus, P. (1992). The role of humor in the interpretation of sexist incidents. Sex Roles, 27, 645-664. Google Scholar, Crossref, ISI
Brinson, S. L. (1992). The use and opposition of rape myths in prime-time television dramas. Sex Roles, 27, 359-375. Google Scholar, Crossref, ISI
Brown, J. D. , & Campbell, K. (1986). Race and gender in music videos: The same beat but a different drummer. Journal of Communication, 36, 94-106. Google Scholar, Crossref, ISI
Bushman, B. J. , & Geen, R. G. (1990). Role of cognitive-emotional mediators and individual differences in the effects of media violence on aggression. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 58, 156-163. Google Scholar, Crossref, Medline, ISI
Davis, D. M. (1990). Portrayals of women in prime-time network television: Some demographic characteristics. Sex Roles, 23, 325-332. Google Scholar, Crossref, ISI
Drabman, R. , & Thomas, M. (1974). Does media violence increase children's toleration of real-life aggression? Developmental Psychology, 10, 419-421. Google Scholar, Crossref
Gerbner, G. , Gross, L., Morgan, M., & Signorielli, N. (1980). The “mainstreaming” of America: Violence profile No. 11. Journal of Communication, 30, 10-29. Google Scholar, Crossref, ISI
Grauerholz, E. (1989). Sexual harassment of women professors by students: Exploring the dynamics of power, authority, and gender in a university setting. Sex Roles, 21, 789-800. Google Scholar, Crossref, ISI
Gutek, B. A. , & Koss, M. P. (1993). Changed women and changed organizations: Consequences of and coping with sexual harassment. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 42, 28-48. Google Scholar, Crossref, ISI
Hacker, H. M. (1951). Women as a minority group. Social Forces, 30, 60-67. Google Scholar, Crossref, ISI
Hansen, C. H. , & Hansen, R. D. (1988). How rock music videos can change what is seen when boy meets girl: Priming stereotypic appraisal of social interaction. Sex Roles, 19, 287-316. Google Scholar, Crossref
Hansen, C. H. , & Hansen, R. D. (1990). Rock music videos and antisocial behavior. Basic and Applied Social Psychology, 11, 357-369. Google Scholar, Crossref, ISI
Haskell, D. (1979). The depiction of women in leading roles in prime time television. Journal of Broadcasting, 23, 191-196. Google Scholar, Crossref
Jennings (Walstedt), J. , Geis, F. L., & Brown, V. (1980). Influence of television commercials on women's self confidence and independent judgment. Journal of Psychology and Social Psychology, 38, 203-210. Google Scholar
Kelly, L. (1988). Surviving sexual violence. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press. Google Scholar
Lawmakers hail TV warnings but seek to go further. (1993, July 3). Congressional Quarterly, p. 1734. Google Scholar
Linz, D. G. , Donnerstein, E., & Penrod, S. (1988). Effects of long-term exposure to violent and sexually degrading depictions of women. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 55, 758-768. Google Scholar, Crossref, Medline, ISI
Lott, B. (1989). Sexist discrimination as distancing behavior II: Prime-time television. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 13, 341-355. Google Scholar, SAGE Journals
Malamuth, N. M. (1986, June). Do sexually violent media indirectly contribute to antisocial behavior? Unpublished paper prepared for the Surgeon General's Workshop on Pornography and Public Health, Arlington, VA. Google Scholar
Malamuth, N. M. , & Check, J.W.P. (1981). The effects of mass media exposure on acceptance of violence against women: A field experiment. Journal of Research in Personality, 15, 436-446. Google Scholar, Crossref, ISI
McKinney, K. (1990). Sexual harassment of university faculty by students and colleagues. Sex Roles, 23, 421-438. Google Scholar, Crossref
McKinney, K. , & Maroules, N. (1991). Sexual harassment. In E. Grauerholz & M. Koralewski (Eds.), Sexual coercion: A sourcebook on its nature, causes, and prevention (pp. 29-44). Lexington, MA: Lexington Books. Google Scholar
McQuail, D. (1990). The influence and effects of mass media. In D. A. Graber (Ed.), Media power in politics (pp. 19-36). Washington, DC: Congressional Quarterly. Google Scholar
Meads, M. (1993). Applying the reasonable woman standard in evaluating sexual harassment claims: Is it justified? Law & Psychology Review, 17, 209-223. Google Scholar
Press, A. L. (1991). Women watching television: Gender, class, and generation in the American television experience. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press. Google Scholar
Reep, D. C. , & Dambrot, F. H. (1987). Television's professional women: Working with men in the 1980s. Journalism Quarterly, 64, 376-381. Google Scholar, SAGE Journals
Sherman, B. L. , & Dominick, J. R. (1986). Violence and sex in music videos: Television and rock `n' roll. Journal of Communication, 36, 79-93. Google Scholar, Crossref
Signorielli, N. , & Lears, M. (1992). Children, television, and conceptions about chores: Attitudes and behaviors. Sex Roles, 27, 157-170. Google Scholar, Crossref, ISI
Sommers-Flanagen, R. , Sommers-Flanagen, J., & Davis, B. (1993). What's happening on music television? A gender role content analysis. Sex Roles, 28, 745-753. Google Scholar, Crossref
Thomas, M. H. , Horton, R. W., Lippincott, E. C., & Drabman, R. S. (1977). Desensitization to portrayals of real-life aggression as a function of exposure to television violence. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 35, 450-458. Google Scholar, Crossref, Medline, ISI
Toufexis, A. (1989). Our violent kids: A rise in brutal crimes by the young shakes the soul of society. Time, 133(24), 52-57. Google Scholar
U.S. Merit Systems Protection Board . (1981). Sexual harassment in the federal workplace: Is it a problem? Washington, DC: Author. Google Scholar
Williams, K. B. , & Cyr, R. R. (1992). Escalating commitment to a relationship: The sexual harassment trap. Sex Roles, 27, 47-72. Google Scholar, Crossref
Wood, W. , Wong, F. Y., & Chachere, J. G. (1991). Effects of media violence on viewers' aggression in unconstrained social interaction. Psychological Bulletin, 109, 371-383. Google Scholar, Crossref, Medline, ISI
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A content analysis of 48 hours of prime time television reveals that sexual harassment on television is both highly visible and invisible. Sexual harassment is rendered visible simply by its prominence in these programs. Incidences involving quid pro quo harassment and environmental harassment occur with regularity on television. Eighty-four percent of the shows studied contained at least one incident of sexual harassment; the average was 3.4. Yet these acts of sexual harassment remain largely invisible in that none of the behaviors was labeled as sexual harassment. They are presented in humorous ways, and victims are generally unharmed and very effective at ending the harassment. Although such programs may actually reflect the reality of many women's lives in terms of prevalence of sexual harassment, they perpetuate several myths about sexual harassment, such as that sexual harassment is not serious and that victims should be able to handle the situations themselves.

Adams, J. W. , Kottke, J. L., & Padgett, J. S. (1983). Sexual harassment of university students. Journal of College Personnel, 24, 484-491. Google Scholar
Atkin, D. J. , Moorman, J., & Lin, C. A. (1991). Ready for prime time: Network series devoted to working women in the 1980s. Sex Roles, 25, 677-685. Google Scholar, Crossref
Axelrod, J. (1993). Sexual harassment in the movies and its effect on the audience. In G. Kreps (Ed.), Sexual harassment: Communication implications (pp. 107-117). Cresskill, NJ: Hampton Press. Google Scholar
Benson, K. (1984). Comment on Crocker's “An analysis of university definitions of sexual harassment.” Signs, 9, 516-519. Google Scholar, Crossref
Bill, B. , & Naus, P. (1992). The role of humor in the interpretation of sexist incidents. Sex Roles, 27, 645-664. Google Scholar, Crossref, ISI
Brinson, S. L. (1992). The use and opposition of rape myths in prime-time television dramas. Sex Roles, 27, 359-375. Google Scholar, Crossref, ISI
Brown, J. D. , & Campbell, K. (1986). Race and gender in music videos: The same beat but a different drummer. Journal of Communication, 36, 94-106. Google Scholar, Crossref, ISI
Bushman, B. J. , & Geen, R. G. (1990). Role of cognitive-emotional mediators and individual differences in the effects of media violence on aggression. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 58, 156-163. Google Scholar, Crossref, Medline, ISI
Davis, D. M. (1990). Portrayals of women in prime-time network television: Some demographic characteristics. Sex Roles, 23, 325-332. Google Scholar, Crossref, ISI
Drabman, R. , & Thomas, M. (1974). Does media violence increase children's toleration of real-life aggression? Developmental Psychology, 10, 419-421. Google Scholar, Crossref
Gerbner, G. , Gross, L., Morgan, M., & Signorielli, N. (1980). The “mainstreaming” of America: Violence profile No. 11. Journal of Communication, 30, 10-29. Google Scholar, Crossref, ISI
Grauerholz, E. (1989). Sexual harassment of women professors by students: Exploring the dynamics of power, authority, and gender in a university setting. Sex Roles, 21, 789-800. Google Scholar, Crossref, ISI
Gutek, B. A. , & Koss, M. P. (1993). Changed women and changed organizations: Consequences of and coping with sexual harassment. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 42, 28-48. Google Scholar, Crossref, ISI
Hacker, H. M. (1951). Women as a minority group. Social Forces, 30, 60-67. Google Scholar, Crossref, ISI
Hansen, C. H. , & Hansen, R. D. (1988). How rock music videos can change what is seen when boy meets girl: Priming stereotypic appraisal of social interaction. Sex Roles, 19, 287-316. Google Scholar, Crossref
Hansen, C. H. , & Hansen, R. D. (1990). Rock music videos and antisocial behavior. Basic and Applied Social Psychology, 11, 357-369. Google Scholar, Crossref, ISI
Haskell, D. (1979). The depiction of women in leading roles in prime time television. Journal of Broadcasting, 23, 191-196. Google Scholar, Crossref
Jennings (Walstedt), J. , Geis, F. L., & Brown, V. (1980). Influence of television commercials on women's self confidence and independent judgment. Journal of Psychology and Social Psychology, 38, 203-210. Google Scholar
Kelly, L. (1988). Surviving sexual violence. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press. Google Scholar
Lawmakers hail TV warnings but seek to go further. (1993, July 3). Congressional Quarterly, p. 1734. Google Scholar
Linz, D. G. , Donnerstein, E., & Penrod, S. (1988). Effects of long-term exposure to violent and sexually degrading depictions of women. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 55, 758-768. Google Scholar, Crossref, Medline, ISI
Lott, B. (1989). Sexist discrimination as distancing behavior II: Prime-time television. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 13, 341-355. Google Scholar, SAGE Journals
Malamuth, N. M. (1986, June). Do sexually violent media indirectly contribute to antisocial behavior? Unpublished paper prepared for the Surgeon General's Workshop on Pornography and Public Health, Arlington, VA. Google Scholar
Malamuth, N. M. , & Check, J.W.P. (1981). The effects of mass media exposure on acceptance of violence against women: A field experiment. Journal of Research in Personality, 15, 436-446. Google Scholar, Crossref, ISI
McKinney, K. (1990). Sexual harassment of university faculty by students and colleagues. Sex Roles, 23, 421-438. Google Scholar, Crossref
McKinney, K. , & Maroules, N. (1991). Sexual harassment. In E. Grauerholz & M. Koralewski (Eds.), Sexual coercion: A sourcebook on its nature, causes, and prevention (pp. 29-44). Lexington, MA: Lexington Books. Google Scholar
McQuail, D. (1990). The influence and effects of mass media. In D. A. Graber (Ed.), Media power in politics (pp. 19-36). Washington, DC: Congressional Quarterly. Google Scholar
Meads, M. (1993). Applying the reasonable woman standard in evaluating sexual harassment claims: Is it justified? Law & Psychology Review, 17, 209-223. Google Scholar
Press, A. L. (1991). Women watching television: Gender, class, and generation in the American television experience. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press. Google Scholar
Reep, D. C. , & Dambrot, F. H. (1987). Television's professional women: Working with men in the 1980s. Journalism Quarterly, 64, 376-381. Google Scholar, SAGE Journals
Sherman, B. L. , & Dominick, J. R. (1986). Violence and sex in music videos: Television and rock `n' roll. Journal of Communication, 36, 79-93. Google Scholar, Crossref
Signorielli, N. , & Lears, M. (1992). Children, television, and conceptions about chores: Attitudes and behaviors. Sex Roles, 27, 157-170. Google Scholar, Crossref, ISI
Sommers-Flanagen, R. , Sommers-Flanagen, J., & Davis, B. (1993). What's happening on music television? A gender role content analysis. Sex Roles, 28, 745-753. Google Scholar, Crossref
Thomas, M. H. , Horton, R. W., Lippincott, E. C., & Drabman, R. S. (1977). Desensitization to portrayals of real-life aggression as a function of exposure to television violence. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 35, 450-458. Google Scholar, Crossref, Medline, ISI
Toufexis, A. (1989). Our violent kids: A rise in brutal crimes by the young shakes the soul of society. Time, 133(24), 52-57. Google Scholar
U.S. Merit Systems Protection Board . (1981). Sexual harassment in the federal workplace: Is it a problem? Washington, DC: Author. Google Scholar
Williams, K. B. , & Cyr, R. R. (1992). Escalating commitment to a relationship: The sexual harassment trap. Sex Roles, 27, 47-72. Google Scholar, Crossref
Wood, W. , Wong, F. Y., & Chachere, J. G. (1991). Effects of media violence on viewers' aggression in unconstrained social interaction. Psychological Bulletin, 109, 371-383. Google Scholar, Crossref, Medline, ISI