![[PDF]](/pb-assets/Icons/adobe-pdf-icon-1498649896243.png){kind=icon}
Abstract
Three experiments were conducted in the United States and Germany to test whether women and men endorse sexist beliefs because they are unaware of the prevalence of different types of sexism in their personal lives. Study 1 (N = 120) and Study 2 (N = 83) used daily diaries as a method to encourage individuals “to see the unseen.” Results revealed that encouraging women to pay attention to sexism, in comparison to attention to other social interactions, led to a stronger rejection of Modern Sexist, Neosexist, and Benevolent Sexist beliefs (Studies 1 and 2) and to negative evaluations of Modern and Benevolent Sexist men described in profiles as well as to more engagement in collective action on behalf of women (Study 2). In contrast, for men, paying attention to sexism did not have these effects. Results from Study 2 suggest, and from Study 3 (N = 141) confirm, that men’s endorsement of Modern and Neosexist beliefs can be reduced if attention to sexism and emotional empathy for the target of discrimination is encouraged. Finally, a follow-up survey indicated that the attitude change in women and men was stable over time. The implications of these findings for interventions to reduce women’s versus men’s endorsement of sexist beliefs are discussed.
Keywords sexism, prejudice, stereotyped attitudes, intervention, attitude change, empathy, activism
References
Section:
| Barreto, M., Ellemers, N. (2005). The burden of benevolent sexism: How it contributes to the maintenance of gender inequalities. European Journal of Social Psychology, 35, 633–642. Google Scholar, Crossref, ISI | |
| Barreto, M., Ryan, M. K., Schmitt, M. (2009). In The glass ceiling in the 21st century: Understanding barriers to gender equality. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association. Google Scholar, Crossref | |
| Batson, C. D., Ahmad, N. Y. (2009). Using empathy to improve intergroup attitudes and relations. Social Issues and Policy Review, 3, 141–177. Google Scholar, Crossref, ISI | |
| Batson, C. D., Polycarpou, M. P., Harmon-Jones, E., Imhoff, H. J., Mitchener, E. C., Bednar, L. L., Highberger, L. (1997). Empathy and attitudes: Can feeling for a member of a stigmatized group improve feelings toward the group?. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 72, 105–118. Google Scholar, Crossref, Medline, ISI | |
| Becker, J. C., Wright, S. C. (2011). Yet another dark side of chivalry: Benevolent sexism undermines and hostile sexism motivates collective action for social change. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. Advance online publication. doi: 10.1037/a0022615 Google Scholar, Crossref, ISI | |
| Boeckmann, R. J., Feather, N. T. (2007). Gender, discrimination beliefs, group-based guilt, and responses to affirmative action for Australian women. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 31, 290–304. Google Scholar, SAGE Journals, ISI | |
| Bohner, G., Ahlborn, K., Steiner, R. (2010). How sexy are sexist men? Women’s perception of male response profiles in the Ambivalent Sexism Inventory. Sex Roles, 62, 568–582. Google Scholar, Crossref, ISI | |
| Crandall, C. S. (1994). Prejudice against fat people: Ideology and self-interest. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 66, 882–894. Google Scholar, Crossref, Medline, ISI | |
| Crosby, F. (1984). The denial of discrimination. American Behavioral Scientist, 27, 371–386. Google Scholar, SAGE Journals, ISI | |
| Crosby, F., Clayton, S., Alksnis, O., Hemker, K. (1986). Cognitive biases in the perception of discrimination: The importance of format. Sex Roles, 14, 637–646. Google Scholar, Crossref, ISI | |
| Dardenne, B., Dumont, M., Bollier, T. (2007). Insidious dangers of benevolent sexism: Consequences for women’s performance. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 93, 764–779. Google Scholar, Crossref, Medline, ISI | |
| Devine, P. G. (1989). Stereotypes and prejudice: Their automatic and controlled components. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 56, 5–18. Google Scholar, Crossref, ISI | |
| Dovidio, J. F., Kawakami, K., Gaertner, S. L. (2002). Implicit and explicit prejudice and interracial interaction. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 82, 62–68. Google Scholar, Crossref, Medline, ISI | |
| Eckes, T., Six-Materna, I. (1998). Leugnung von Diskriminierung: Eine Skala zur Erfassung des Modernen Sexismus [Denial of discrimination: A scale measuring modern sexism]. Zeitschrift für Sozialpsychologie, 29, 224–238. Google Scholar | |
| Eckes, T., Six-Materna, I. (1999). Hostilität und Benevolenz: Skala zur Erfassung des Ambivalenten Sexismus [Hostility and benevolence: A scale measuring ambivalent sexism]. Zeitschrift für Sozialpsychologie, 30, 211–228. Google Scholar, Crossref | |
| Fischer, A. R., Bolton Holz, K. (2010). Testing a model of women‘s personal sense of justice, control, well-being, and distress in the context of sexist discrimination. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 34, 297–310. Google Scholar, SAGE Journals, ISI | |
| Foster, M. D. (2009). Perceiving pervasive discrimination over time: Implications for coping. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 33, 172–183. Google Scholar, SAGE Journals, ISI | |
| Friedman, C., Leaper, C. (2010). Sexual-minority college women’s experiences with discrimination: Relations with identity and collective action. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 34, 152–164. Google Scholar, SAGE Journals, ISI | |
| Glick, P., Fiske, S. T. (1996). The Ambivalent Sexism Inventory: Differentiating hostile and benevolent sexism. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 70, 491–512. Google Scholar, Crossref, ISI | |
| Glick, P., Fiske, S. T., Mladinic, A., Saiz, J. L., Abrams, D., Masser, B., López López, W. (2000). Beyond prejudice as simple antipathy: Hostile and benevolent sexism across cultures. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 79, 763–775. Google Scholar, Crossref, Medline, ISI | |
| Grau, I (1994). Entwicklung und Validierung eines Inventars zur Erfassung von Bindungsstilen in Partnerschaften [Development and validation of scale measuring attachment styles in couples] (Unpublished doctoral dissertation). Philipps-University Marburg, Germany. Google Scholar | |
| Iyer, A., Ryan, M. K. (2009). Why do men and women challenge gender discrimination? The role of group status and in-group identification in predicting pathways to collective action. Journal of Social Issues, 65, 791–814. Google Scholar, Crossref, ISI | |
| Jackman, M. R. (1994). In The velvet glove: Paternalism and conflict in gender, class, and race relations. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press. Google Scholar | |
| Jost, J. T., Kay, A. C. (2005). Exposure to benevolent sexism and complementary gender stereotypes: Consequences for specific and diffuse forms of system justification. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 88, 498–509. Google Scholar, Crossref, Medline, ISI | |
| Kilianski, S. E., Rudman, L. A. (1998). Wanting it both ways: Do women approve of benevolent sexism?. Sex Roles, 39, 333–352. Google Scholar, Crossref, ISI | |
| Klonis, S. C., Plant, E. A., Devine, P. G. (2005). Internal and external motivation to respond without sexism. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 31, 1237–1249. Google Scholar, SAGE Journals, ISI | |
| McConahay, J. B. (1983). Modern racism and modern discrimination: The effects of race, racial attitudes, and context on simulated hiring decisions. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 9, 551–558. Google Scholar, SAGE Journals, ISI | |
| Moya, M., Glick, P., Expósito, F., de Lemus, S., Hart, J. (2007). It’s for your own good: Benevolent sexism and women’s tolerance of paternalistic discrimination by intimate partners. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 33, 1421–1434. Google Scholar, SAGE Journals, ISI | |
| Oskamp, S. (Ed.). (2000). In Reducing prejudice and discrimination. Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum. Google Scholar | |
| Pettigrew, T. F., Tropp, L. R. (2006). A meta-analytic test of intergroup contact theory. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 90, 751–783. Google Scholar, Crossref, Medline, ISI | |
| Plant, E. A., Devine, P. G. (1998). Internal and external motivation to respond without prejudice. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 75, 811–832. Google Scholar, Crossref, ISI | |
| Rudman, L. A., Glick, P. (2008). In The social psychology of gender: How power and intimacy shape gender relations. New York: Guilford Press. Google Scholar | |
| Schmitt, M. T., Branscombe, N. R., Kappen, D. M. (2003). Attitudes toward group-based inequality: Social dominance or social identity?. British Journal of Social Psychology, 42, 161–186. Google Scholar, Crossref, Medline, ISI | |
| Shih, M., Wang, E., Trahan Bucher, A., Stotzer, R. (2009). Perspective taking: Reducing prejudice towards general outgroups and specific individuals. Group Processes and Intergroup Relations, 12, 565–577. Google Scholar, SAGE Journals, ISI | |
| Stangor, C., Swim, J. K., Sechrist, G. B., DeCoster, J., Van Allen, K. L., Ottenbreit, A. (2003). Ask, answer and announce: Three stages in perceiving and responding to discrimination. European Review of Social Psychology, 14, 277–311. Google Scholar, Crossref | |
| Stephan, W. G., Vogt, W. P. (Eds.). (2004). In Education programs for improving intergroup relations: Theory, research and practice. New York: Teachers College Press. Google Scholar | |
| Swim, J. K., Aikin, K. J., Hall, W. S., Hunter, B. A. (1995). Sexism and racism: Old-fashioned and modern prejudices. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 68, 199–214. Google Scholar, Crossref, ISI | |
| Swim, J. K., Becker, J. C., DeCoster, J. (2010). Core dimensions of contemporary measures of sexist beliefs. Manuscript submitted for publication, Google Scholar | |
| Swim, J. K., Becker, J., Lee, E., Pruitt, E. R. (2009). Sexism reloaded: Worldwide evidence for its endorsement, expression, and emergence in multiple contexts. In Landrine, H., Russo, N. (Eds.), Handbook of diversity in feminist psychology (pp. 137–172). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association. Google Scholar | |
| Swim, J. K., Cohen, L. L., Hyers, L. L. (1998). Experiencing everyday prejudice and discrimination. In Swim, J. K., Stangor, C. (Eds.), Prejudice: The target’s perspective (pp. 37–60). San Diego, CA: Academic Press. Google Scholar, Crossref | |
| Swim, J. K., Hyers, L. L. (2009). Sexism. In Nelson, T. D. (Ed.), Handbook of prejudice, stereotyping and discrimination (pp. 407–430). New York: Psychology Press. Google Scholar | |
| Swim, J. K., Hyers, L. L., Cohen, L. L., Ferguson, M. J. (2001). Everyday sexism: Evidence for its incidence, nature and psychological impact from three daily diary studies. Journal of Social Issues, 57, 31–53. Google Scholar, Crossref, ISI | |
| Swim, J. K., Mallett, R., Russo-Devosa, Y., Stangor, C. (2005). Judgments of sexism. A comparison of the subtlety of sexism measures and sources of variability in judgments of sexism. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 29, 406–411. Google Scholar, SAGE Journals, ISI | |
| Swim, J. K., Scott, E., Sechrist, G. B., Campbell, B., Stangor, C. (2003). The role of intent and harm in judgments of prejudice. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 84, 944–959. Google Scholar, Crossref, Medline, ISI | |
| Tougas, F., Brown, R., Beaton, A. M., Joly, S. (1995). Neosexism: Plus ca change, plus c’est pareil. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 21, 842–849. Google Scholar, SAGE Journals, ISI | |
| United Nations . (2008). Human development report 2007/2008. Retrieved from http://www.hdr.undp.org/en/media/HDR_20072008_EN_Complete.pdf Google Scholar | |
| Vescio, T. K., Gervais, S., Snyder, M., Hoover, A. (2005). Power and the creation of patronizing environments: The stereotype-based behaviors of the powerful and their effects on female performance in masculine domains. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 88, 658–672. Google Scholar, Crossref, Medline, ISI | |
| Vescio, T. K., Sechrist, G. B., Paolucci, M. P. (2003). Perspective taking and prejudice reduction: The mediational role of empathy arousal and situational attributions. European Journal of Social Psychology, 33, 455–472. Google Scholar, Crossref, ISI |
