![[PDF]](/pb-assets/Icons/adobe-pdf-icon-1498649896243.png){kind=icon}
Abstract
Isle Royale, in Lake Superior, contains evidence of indigenous copper mining; however, the timing and geographical extent of mining activity is poorly known. We analyzed metal, carbon, nitrogen, and organic matter concentrations to document past mining pollution in sediment cores recovered from McCargoe Cove; a long, narrow inlet of Lake Superior on Isle Royale that receives drainage from a watershed that contains numerous ancient copper mines. At McCargoe Cove, concentrations of lead, copper, and potassium increase in the sediments after ad 1860 and between 6500 and 5400 years before ad 1950 (yr BP). Metal pollution increases at McCargoe Cove exceed natural (or background) levels and coincide with radiocarbon dates associated with copper artifacts and existing lead pollution reconstructions from lakes on the Keweenaw Peninsula. Interestingly, a coherent cessation of lead emissions at multiple study sites after ~5400 yr BP coincides with the onset of dry conditions found in regional paleoclimate proxy records. After ~5000 yr BP, lead concentrations on both Isle Royale and the Keweenaw Peninsula remain at background levels until the onset of modern lead pollution ~ad 1860.
Keywords archaeology, lead, Michigan, Old Copper Complex, pollution, prehistoric copper mining, sediments
References
Section:
| Abbott, MB, Stafford, TW (1996) Radiocarbon geochemistry of ancient and modern lakes, Arctic Lakes, Baffin Island. Quaternary Research 45: 300–311. Google Scholar, Crossref, ISI | |
| Appleby, PG, Oldfield, F (1978) The calculation of lead-210 dates assuming a constant rate of supply unsupported lead-210 to the sediment. Catena 5: 1–8. Google Scholar, Crossref | |
| Beukens, RP, Pavlish, LA, Hancock, RGV. (1992) Radiocarbon dating of copper-preserved organics. Radiocarbon 34: 890–897. Google Scholar, Crossref, ISI | |
| Biggar, HP (1924) The Voyages of Jacques Cartier. Ottawa: Publications of the Public Archives of Canada. Google Scholar | |
| Biggar, HP (1925) The Works of Samuel de Champlain. Toronto: Publications of the Champlain Society. Google Scholar | |
| Binford, LR (1962) Radiometric analysis of bone material from the Oconto Site. The Wisconsin Archeologist 43: 31–41. Google Scholar | |
| Binford, MW (1990) Calculation and uncertainty analysis of Pb-210 dates for PIRLA project lake sediment cores. Journal of Paleolimnology 3: 253–267. Google Scholar, Crossref | |
| Blaauw, M (2010) Methods and code for ‘classical’ age-modelling of radiocarbon sequences. Quaternary Geochronology 5: 512–518. Google Scholar, Crossref, ISI | |
| Blewett, WL (2009) Understanding Ancient Shorelines in the National Parklands of the Great Lakes (Pictured rocks resource report). Washington, DC: National Park Service. Google Scholar | |
| Bloom, PR (1981) Metal-Organic Matter Interactions in Soil. Madison, WI: ASA Special Publication, Soil Science Society of America. Google Scholar | |
| Boës, X, Rydberg, J, Martinez-Cortizas, A. (2011) Evaluation of conservative lithogenic elements (Ti, Zr, Al, and Rb) to study anthropogenic element enrichments in lake sediments. Journal of Paleolimnology 46: 75–87. Google Scholar, Crossref, ISI | |
| Bowen, HJM (1979) Environmental Chemistry of Elements. London; New York; Toronto: Academic Press. Google Scholar | |
| Breckenridge, A (2013) An analysis of the late glacial lake levels within the western Lake Superior basin based on digital elevation models. Quaternary Research 80: 383–395. Google Scholar, Crossref, ISI | |
| Calloway, CP, Li, S, Buchanan, JW. (1989) A refinement of the potassium tracer method for residential wood smoke. Atmospheric Environment 23: 67–69. Google Scholar, Crossref, ISI | |
| Clark, CP (1995) Archeological Survey and Testing Isle Royale National Park 1987–1990 Seasons (ed U.S. Department of the Interior). Lincoln, NE: National Park Service, Midwest Archeological Center. Google Scholar | |
| Clark, CP (1996) Old Fort and Old Copper: The Search for the Archaic Stage on Isle Royale. Kalamazoo, MI: New Issue Press, Western Michigan University. Google Scholar | |
| Clayton, L (1983) Chronology of Lake Agassiz drainage to Lake Superior. In: Teller, JT, Clayton, L (eds) Glacial Lake Agassiz: Geological Association of Canada Special Paper (Issue 26). pp. 291–307. Google Scholar | |
| Crane, HR, Griffin, JB (1965) University of Michigan Radiocarbon Dates X. Radiocarbon 7: 123–152. Google Scholar, Crossref, ISI | |
| Dean, WE (1974) Determination of carbonate and organic matter in calcareous sediments and sedimentary rocks by loss on ignition: Comparison with other methods. Journal of Sedimentary Petrology 44: 242–248. Google Scholar | |
| Eichler, A, Tinner, W, Brütsch, S. (2011) An ice-core based history of Siberian forest fires since ad 1250. Quaternary Science Reviews 30: 1027–1034. Google Scholar, Crossref, ISI | |
| Fine, PM, Cass, GR, Simoneit, BRT (2001) Chemical characterization of fine particle emissions from fireplace combustion of woods grown in the Northeastern United States. Environmental Science & Technology 35: 2665–2675. Google Scholar, Crossref, Medline, ISI | |
| Flakne, R (2003) The Holocene vegetation history of Isle Royale National Park, Michigan, U.S.A. Canadian Journal of Forest Research 33: 1144–1166. Google Scholar, Crossref, ISI | |
| Foster, JW, Whitney, JD (1850) Report on the Geology and Topography of a Portion of the Lake Superior Land District in the State of Michigan. Part 1: Copper Lands (31st Congress, 1st Session). Washington, DC: U.S. House of Representatives. Google Scholar | |
| Gillman, H (1873) Ancient Work at Isle Royale, Michigan (Appleton’s Journal: A magazine of general literature). New York: D. Appleton and Company, pp. 173–175. Google Scholar | |
| Graney, JR, Halliday, AN, Keeler, GJ. (1995) Isotopic record of lead pollution in lake sediments from the northeastern United States. Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta 59: 1715–1728. Google Scholar, Crossref, ISI | |
| Griffin, JB (1961) Lake Superior Copper and the Indians: Miscellaneous Studies of Great Lakes Prehistory (Anthropological Papers). Ann Arbor, MI: Museum of Anthropology, University of Michigan. Google Scholar | |
| Hagar, AD (1865) Ancient mining on the shores of Lake Superior. Atlantic Monthly 15: 308–315. Google Scholar | |
| Harrison, RM, Beddows, DCS, Hu, L. (2012) Comparison of methods for evaluation of wood smoke and estimation of UK ambient concentrations. Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics 12: 8271–8283. Google Scholar, Crossref, ISI | |
| Heiri, O, Lotter, AF, Lemcke, G (2001) Loss on ignition as a method for estimating organic and carbonate content in sediments: Reproducibility and comparability of results. Journal of Paleolimnology 25: 101–110. Google Scholar, Crossref, ISI | |
| Hill, SW (1847) Underground Works of the North West Mines. Houghton, MI: Michigan Technological University Archives. Google Scholar | |
| Holmes, WH (1892) Copper Mine on Isle Royale. Washington, DC: National Anthropological Archives, Smithsonian Institution. Google Scholar | |
| Holmes, WH (1901) Aboriginal Copper Mines of Isle Royale, Lake Superior (American Anthropologist New Series). New York: G.P. Putnam’s Sons. Google Scholar | |
| Kalff, J (2002) Limnology (ed Ryu, T ). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall. Google Scholar | |
| Kehrwald, N, Zangrando, R, Gabrielli, P et al. (2012) Levoglucosan as a specific marker of fire events in Greenland snow. Tellus B 64. Available at: http://dx.doi.org/10.3402/tellusb.v64i0.18196. Google Scholar | |
| Kerfoot, WC, Robbins, JA (1999) Nearshore regions of Lake Superior: Multi-element signatures of mining discharges and a test of Pb-210 deposition under conditions of variable sediment mass flux. Journal of Great Lakes Research 25: 697–720. Google Scholar, Crossref, ISI | |
| Kirby, ME, Mullins, HT, Patterson, WP. (2002) Late glacial-Holocene atmospheric circulation and precipitation in the northeast United States inferred from modern calibrated stable oxygen and carbon isotopes. Geological Society of America Bulletin 114: 1326–1340. Google Scholar, Crossref, ISI | |
| Kleeman, MJ, Schauer, JJ, Cass, GR (1999) Size and composition distribution of fine particulate matter emitted from wood burning, meat charbroiling and cigarettes. Environmental Science & Technology 33: 3516–3523. Google Scholar, Crossref, ISI | |
| Kuehn, SR (2002) Defining the temporal boundaries of the Middle Archaic: Old and new evidence from southern Wisconsin. The Wisconsin Archeologist 83: 19–44. Google Scholar | |
| Lane, AC (1900) Upper Peninsula 1893–1897. Volume VI. Part I. Geological Report on Isle Royale Michigan (ed Geological Survey of Michigan). Lansing, MI: Robert Smith Printing Co. Google Scholar | |
| Lankton, LD (2010) Hollowed Ground: Copper Mining and Community Building on Lake Superior, 1840’s–1990’s. Detroit, MI: Wayne State University Press. Google Scholar | |
| Laronge, M (2001) An experimental analysis of Great Lakes Archaic copper smithing. North American Archaeologist 22: 371–385. Google Scholar, SAGE Journals, ISI | |
| Larson, TV, Koenig, JQ (1994) Wood smoke: Emissions and noncancer respiratory effects. Annual Review in Public Health 15: 133–156. Google Scholar, Crossref, Medline, ISI | |
| Levine, MA (2007a) Determining the Provenance of native copper artifacts from Northeastern North America: Evidence from instrumental neutron activation analysis. Journal of Archaeological Science 34: 572–587. Google Scholar, Crossref, ISI | |
| Levine, MA (2007b) Overcoming disciplinary solitude: The archaeology and geology of the Native Copper in Eastern North America. Geoarchaeology: An International Journal 22: 49–66. Google Scholar, Crossref, ISI | |
| Lewis, CFM, Anderson, TW (1989) Oscillations of levels and cool phases of the Laurentian Great Lakes caused by inflows from glacial Lakes Agassiz and Barlow-Ojibway. Journal of Paleolimnology 2: 99–146. Google Scholar, Crossref | |
| Lewis, CFM, King, JW, Blasco, SM. (2008) Dry climate disconnected the Laurentian Great Lakes. EOS: Transactions of the American Geophysical Union 89: 541–552. Google Scholar, Crossref | |
| Libby, WF (1954) Chicago Radiocarbon Dates V. Science 120: 733–742. Google Scholar, Crossref, Medline, ISI | |
| Lima, AL, Hubeny, JB, Reddy, CM. (2005) High-resolution historical records from Pettaquamscutt River basin sediments: 1. 210Pb and varve chronologies validate record of 137Cs released by the Chernobyl accident. Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta 69: 1803–1812. Google Scholar, Crossref, ISI | |
| Martin, SR (1993) 20KE20: Excavations at a Prehistoric Copper Workshop. Michigan Archaeologist 39: 127–193. Google Scholar | |
| Martin, SR (1999) Wonderful Power: The Story of Ancient Copper Working in the Lake Superior Basin. Detroit, MI: Wayne State University Press. Google Scholar | |
| Mason, RJ, Mason, CI (1961) The age of the Old Copper culture. The Wisconsin Archeologist 42: 143–155. Google Scholar | |
| Meyers, PA (1997) Organic geochemical proxies of paleoceanographic, paleolimnologic, and paleoclimatic processes. Organic Geochemistry 27: 213–250. Google Scholar, Crossref, ISI | |
| Monna, F, Dominik, J, Loizeau, JL. (1999) Origin and evolution of Pb in sediments of Lake Geneva (Switzerland-France). Establishing a stable Pb record. Environmental Science & Technology 33: 2850–2857. Google Scholar, Crossref, ISI | |
| NPS (2004) Fire Management Plan 2004 for Isle Royale National Park. Houghton, MI: U.S. Department of the Interior. Google Scholar | |
| Nriagu, JO (1996) A history of global metal pollution. Science 272: 223–224. Google Scholar, Crossref, ISI | |
| Pacyna, JM, Pacyna, EG (2001) An assessment of global and regional emissions of trace metals to the atmosphere from anthropogenic sources worldwide. Environmental Reviews 9: 269–298. Google Scholar, Crossref | |
| Peterson, DH (2003) Red Metal Poundings and the ‘Neubauer Process’: Copper Culture Metallurgical Technology. Central States Archaeological Journal 50: 102–105. Google Scholar | |
| Pio, CA, Legrand, M, Alves, CA. (2008) Chemical composition of atmospheric aerosols during the 2003 summer intense forest fire period. Atmospheric Environment 42: 7530–7543. Google Scholar, Crossref, ISI | |
| Pleger, TC (2001) New dates for the Oconto Old Copper Culture cemetery. The Wisconsin Archeologist 82: 87–100. Google Scholar | |
| Pleger, TC, Stoltman, JB (2009) The Archaic Tradition in Wisconsin. Albany, NY: State University of New York Press. Google Scholar | |
| Pompeani, DP, Abbott, MB, Steinman, BA. (2013) Lake sediments record prehistoric lead pollution related to early copper production in North America. Environmental Science & Technology 47: 5545–5552. Google Scholar, Crossref, Medline, ISI | |
| Renberg, I (1986) Concentrations and annual accumulation values of heavy metals in lake sediments: Their significance in studies of the history of heavy metal pollution. Hydrobiologia 143: 379–385. Google Scholar, Crossref, ISI | |
| Rosemeyer, T (2009) Copper-bearing fissure veins, Keweenaw County, Michigan. Rocks & Minerals. 84: 307–319. Google Scholar, Crossref | |
| Schroeder, DL, Ruhl, KC (1968) Metallurgical characteristics of North American prehistoric copper work. American Antiquity 33: 162–169. Google Scholar, Crossref, ISI | |
| Shotyk, W, Cheburkin, AK, Appleby, PG. (1996) Two thousand years of atmospheric arsenic, antimony, and lead deposition recorded in an ombrotrophic peat bog profile, Jura Mountains, Switzerland. Earth and Planetary Science Letters 145: E1–E7. Google Scholar, Crossref, ISI | |
| Smith, AJ, Donovan, JJ, Ito, E. (1997) Ground-water processes controlling a prairie lake’s response to middle Holocene drought. Geology 25: 391–394. Google Scholar, Crossref, ISI | |
| Smith, AJ, Donovan, JJ, Ito, E. (2002) Climate-driven hydrologic transients in lake sediment records: Multiproxy records of mid-Holocene drought. Quaternary Science Reviews 21: 625–646. Google Scholar, Crossref, ISI | |
| Song, CH, Ma, Y, Orsini, D. (2005) An investigation into the ionic chemical composition and mixing state of biomass burning particles recorded during TRACE-P P3B Flight#10. Journal of Atmospheric Chemistry 51: 43–64. Google Scholar, Crossref, ISI | |
| Stoltman, JB (1997) The Archaic Tradition. The Wisconsin Archeologist 78: 112–139. Google Scholar | |
| Stuiver, M, Reimer, PJ, Reimer, R (2010) CALIB Radiocarbon Calibration 6.0.1. Available at: http://calib.qub.ac.uk/calib/. Google Scholar | |
| Tainter, JA, Allen, TFH, Hoekstra, TW (2006) Energy transformations and post-normal science. Energy 31: 44–58. Google Scholar, Crossref, ISI | |
| Vermillion, B, Brugam, R, Retzlaff, W. (2005) The sedimentary record of environmental lead contamination at St. Louis, Missouri (USA) area smelters. Journal of Paleolimnology 33: 189–203. Google Scholar, Crossref, ISI | |
| Weiss, D, Shotyk, W, Appleby, PG. (1999) Atmospheric Pb deposition since the industrial revolution recorded by five Swiss peat profiles: Enrichment factors, fluxes, isotopic composition and sources. Environmental Science & Technology 33: 1340–1352. Google Scholar, Crossref, ISI | |
| Whittlesey, C (1862) Outline Map Showing the Positions of the Ancient Mine Pits, of the Point Keweenaw, Michigan. Washington, DC: Smithsonian Institution. Google Scholar | |
| Whittlesey, C (1863) Ancient Mining on the Shores of Lake Superior (Smithsonian Contributions to Knowledge). Washington, DC: Smithsonian Institution. Google Scholar, Crossref | |
| Winchell, NH (1881) Ancient copper mines of Isle Royale. Popular Science Monthly 19: 601–620. Google Scholar | |
| Yu, Z, McAndrews, JH, Eicher, U (1997) Middle Holocene dry climate caused by change in atmospheric circulation patterns: Evidence from lake levels and stable isotopes. Geology 25: 251–254. Google Scholar, Crossref, ISI |
