![[PDF]](/pb-assets/Icons/adobe-pdf-icon-1498649896243.png){kind=icon}
Abstract
This study explores the history of the illegal production, distribution, and smuggling of cigarettes in mainland China. Data were obtained from a content analysis of 931 media reports retrieved from LexisNexis for the time period 1975 until 2010, and from other open sources. The illegal cigarette trade first emerged in the form of violations of state tobacco monopoly regulations. In the course of the restructuring of the legal tobacco sector, which occurred under external political pressure to open the Chinese market to foreign competition, an illegal cigarette industry emerged which at first primarily produced fake Chinese brand cigarettes for the domestic black market. At the same time, China became a destination country for smuggled genuine Western brand cigarettes. It was only after effective crackdowns against cigarette smuggling and domestic distribution channels in the late 1990s that the Chinese illegal cigarette industry shifted to exporting large numbers of counterfeit Western brand cigarettes to black markets abroad. China’s current role as a leading supplier of counterfeit cigarettes is a result of the contradictions of the economic reform process and of external licit and illicit forces that worked toward opening up the Chinese tobacco sector to the outside world.
References
Section:
| Allen, E. (2011). The illicit trade in tobacco products and how to tackle it. Washington, DC: International Tax and Investment Center. Google Scholar | |
| ASH New Zealand . (2010). The Illicit Tobacco Trade: Monitoring and Mitigating Risk in New Zealand. Retrieved from http://www.ash.org.nz/site_resources/library/Research_commisoned_by_ASH/Illicit_Tobacco_Trade.pdf Google Scholar | |
| Asian Wall Street Journal . (1990, December 31). Asia Briefs: China. Retrieved from LexisNexis. Google Scholar | |
| Bakken, B. (2005). Crime, Punishment and Policing in China. Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield. Google Scholar | |
| Barranco, J., Wisler, D. (1999). Validity and systematicity of newspaper data in event analysis. European Sociological Review, 15, 301–322. Google Scholar, Crossref, ISI | |
| Beare, M. (2002). Organized corporate criminality: Tobacco smuggling between Canada and the US. Crime, Law and Social Change, 37, 225–243. Google Scholar, Crossref, ISI | |
| Behar, R . (2000, October 30). Beijing’s Phony War on Fakes: Welcome to the People’s Republic of Counterfeiting, where everything from soap to software is pirated—And even the government’s crackdown isn’t real. Fortune. Retrieved from http://money.cnn.com/magazines/fortune/fortune_archive/2000/10/30/290603/index.htm Google Scholar | |
| Bell, M. W., Khor, H. E., Kochhar, K. (1993). China at the threshold of a market economy. Washington, DC: International Monetary Fund. Google Scholar, Crossref | |
| Bennett, R.R. (2004). Comparative criminology and criminal justice research: The state of our knowledge. Justice Quarterly, 21, 1–21. Google Scholar, Crossref, ISI | |
| Bonner, R., Drew, C. (1997, August 25). Cigarette makers are seen as aiding rise in smuggling. The New York Times. Retrieved from LexisNexis. Google Scholar | |
| Boyle, D . (2009, November 15). Up in smoke. Sunday Mirror. Retrieved from LexisNexis. Google Scholar | |
| Brewer, J. D., Guelke, A., Hume, I., Moxon-Browne, E., Wilford, R. (1996). The police, public order and the state. 2nd ed. London, England: Macmillan. Google Scholar, Crossref | |
| British American, Tobacco . (2010). Illicit trade: Examining the problem and advocating solutions. London, England: British American Tobacco Holdings. Google Scholar | |
| Broadhurst, R., Liu, J. (2004). Introduction: Crime, law and criminology in China. The Australian and New Zealand Journal of Criminology, 37, 1–12. Google Scholar, SAGE Journals, ISI | |
| Broadman, H. G., Sun, X. (1997). The distribution of foreign direct investment in China. The World Economy, 20, 339–361. Google Scholar, Crossref, ISI | |
| Campbell, D., Beelman, M. S., Schelzig, E. J. (2000, February 2). Paper trail to markets of the East. The Guardian. Retrieved from LexisNexis. Google Scholar | |
| Chen, T.-P . (2009). China’s Marlboro Country: A massive underground industry makes China the World Leader in counterfeit cigarettes. Retrieved from http://www.publicintegrity.org/investigations/tobacco/articles/entry/1437/ Google Scholar | |
| Chien, S.-S. (2010). Economic freedom and political control in post-Mao China: A perspective of upward accountability and asymmetric decentralization. Asian Journal of Political Science, 18, 68–89. Google Scholar, Crossref | |
| Chin, K.-L., Godson, R. (2006). Organized crime and the political-criminal nexus in China. Trends in Organized Crime, 9, 5–44. Google Scholar, Crossref | |
| China Daily . (1997, August 27). Cigarette smuggling crackdown intensified. Retrieved from LexisNexis. Google Scholar | |
| China Daily . (1998, September 14). Prices rise as smuggling falls. Retrieved from LexisNexis. Google Scholar | |
| China Daily . (1999, March 1). Yunnan Tobacco Producers Confound Expectations. Retrieved from LexisNexis. Google Scholar | |
| China Daily . (1999, July 15). Anti-smuggling raids aid industry, fatten tariffs. Retrieved from LexisNexis. Google Scholar | |
| China Daily . (1999, November 14). China: Press Cuttings. Retrieved from Lexis Nexis. Google Scholar | |
| China Daily . (2000, January 17). China: Nation smokes out fake cigarettes. Retrieved from LexisNexis. Google Scholar | |
| China Daily . (2003, January 11). Country to kick the butt of counterfeit cigarettes. Retrieved from LexisNexis. Google Scholar | |
| Chow, D. C. K. (2003). Organized crime, local protectionism, and the trade in counterfeit goods in China. China Economic Review, 14, 473–484. Google Scholar, Crossref, ISI | |
| Chow, D. C. K . (2006). Counterfeiting and China’s economic development. Retrieved from http://www.uscc.gov/hearings/2006hearings/written_testimonies/06_06_08wrts/06_06_7_8_chow_daniel.pdf Google Scholar | |
| Chow, M . (1998, September 23). Businessman accused of mastermind role in cigarette smuggling. South China Morning Post. Retrieved from LexisNexis. Google Scholar | |
| Chu, Y. K. (2002). Global triads: Myth or reality? In Berdal, M., Serrano, M. (Eds.), Transnational organized crime and international security: Business as usual? (pp. 183–195). Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner. Google Scholar | |
| Chwee-Huat, T. (1988). The revival of small business and socialist entrepreneurs in China. Journal of Small Business and Entrepreneurship, 5, 20–26. Google Scholar, Crossref | |
| Cook, R . (1998, September 13). Smugglers on the run. South China Morning Post. Retrieved from LexisNexis. Google Scholar | |
| Cullen, P . (2010, July 29). Revenue opens phone line seeking information on tobacco smuggling. The Irish Times. Retrieved from LexisNexis. Google Scholar | |
| Cunningham, S . (1996, August 15). HK customs seizes cigarettes. Lloyd’s List. Retrieved from LexisNexis. Google Scholar | |
| Curtis, G. E., Elan, S. L., Hudson, R. A., Kollars, N. A. (2003). Transnational Activities of Chinese Crime Organizations. Washington, DC: Library of Congress. Google Scholar | |
| Davies, M., Shen, A. (2010). Questioning suspected offenders: The investigative interviewing process in the People’s Republic of China. Criminology & Criminal Justice, 10, 243–259. Google Scholar, SAGE Journals, ISI | |
| Deutsche Presse Agentur . (1998, July 23). China’s Jiang orders army to shut firms to aid anti-smuggling drive. Retrieved from LexisNexis. Google Scholar | |
| Doyle, L., Higgins, A. (1995, December 9). Billion-pound rackets that boost cigarette profits. The Guardian. Retrieved from LexisNexis. Google Scholar | |
| Economist . (1990, May 26). Little white lies. Retrieved from LexisNexis. Google Scholar | |
| Elias, R . (2005, April 18). Triad gangs target Scots. Daily Record. Retrieved from LexisNexis. Google Scholar | |
| Europol . (2011). EU organised crime threat assessment OCTA 2011. The Hague, Netherlands: Author. Google Scholar | |
| Faison, S . (1997, March 4). Asia’s giant, after detours, takes familiar growth path. The New York Times. Retrieved from LexisNexis. Google Scholar | |
| Faison, S . (1998, March 6). China’s paragon of corruption. The New York Times. Retrieved from LexisNexis. Google Scholar | |
| Faison, S . (1999, January 13). China points finger at culprit of the week. The New York Times. Retrieved from LexisNexis. Google Scholar | |
| Feaver, R. R. (1996). China’s copyright law and the TRIPS agreement. Journal of Transnational Law and Policy, 5, 431–458. Google Scholar | |
| Franzosi, R. (1987). The press as a source of socio-historical data: Issues in the methodology of data collection from newspapers. Historical Methods, 20, 5–16. Google Scholar, Crossref, ISI | |
| Gardiner, J . (2002, June 29). Cigarette fakes worth $1m. The New Zealand Herald. Retrieved from LexisNexis. Google Scholar | |
| Goldreich, S . (1998, May 22). Cigarette taxes spawn black market. The Washington Times. Retrieved from LexisNexis. Google Scholar, Medline | |
| Gosman, K . (1996, June 23). Counterfeit Chinese smokes racket busted. The Sunday Telegraph. Retrieved from LexisNexis. Google Scholar | |
| Gruner, H. S. (1996). The export of U.S. tobacco products to developing countries and previously closed markets. Law and Policy in International Business, 28, 217–254. Google Scholar | |
| Guthrie, D. (2009). China and globalization: The social, economic and political transformation of Chinese society (Rev. ed.). New York, NY: Routledge. Google Scholar | |
| Hajdinjak, M. (2002). Smuggling in Southeast Europe. Sofia, Bulgaria: Center for the Study of Democracy. Google Scholar | |
| Harding, J . (1997, July 4). China’s cigarette makers fear competition. Financial Times. Retrieved from LexisNexis. Google Scholar | |
| He, C., Wei, Y. D., Xie, X. (2008). Globalization, institutional change, and industrial location: Economic transition and industrial concentration in China. Regional Studies, 42, 923–945. Google Scholar, Crossref, ISI | |
| He, P., Takeuchi, T., Yano, E. (2010). Analysis of a tobacco vector and its actions in China: The activities of Japan tobacco. Tobacco Induced Diseases, 8. Retrieved from http://www.tobaccoinduceddiseases.com/content/8/1/13 Google Scholar, Crossref, Medline | |
| Henan Provincial Service . (1988, October 17). Economic crimes in Henan Province “on the increase.” Retrieved from LexisNexis. Google Scholar | |
| Higgins, A., Doyle, L. (1996, January 3). BAT plans China offensive. The Guardian. Retrieved from LexisNexis. Google Scholar | |
| HM Customs & Excise . (2004). Counterfeit cigarettes 2004. Retrieved from http://webarchive.nationalarchives.gov.uk/+/http://www.hm-treasury.gov.uk/media/D62/79/counterfeit_cigarettes_2004.pdf Google Scholar | |
| Hu, T.-W., Mao, Z. (2002). Economic analysis of tobacco and options for tobacco control: China case study. Washington, DC: World Bank. Google Scholar | |
| Hu, T.-W., Mao, Z., Shi, J., Chen, W. (2008). Tobacco taxation and its potential impact in China. Paris, France: International Union Against Tuberculosis and Lung Disease. Google Scholar | |
| Hu, T.-W., Mao, Z., Shi, J., Chen, W. (2010). The role of taxation in tobacco control and its potential economic impact in China. Tobacco Control, 19, 58–64. Google Scholar, Crossref, Medline, ISI | |
| Humphreys, A . (2003, August 28). Police seize fake cigarettes in city stakeout. National Post. Retrieved from LexisNexis. Google Scholar | |
| Hung, C. L. (2003). The business of product counterfeiting in China and the post-WTO environment. Asia Pacific Business Review, 10, 58–77. Google Scholar, Crossref | |
| Hutchings, G . (1999, November 2). China coughing up for smokes. Herald Sun. Retrieved from LexisNexis. Google Scholar | |
| Jewkes, Y. (2011). The media and criminological research. In Davies, P., Francis, P., Jupp, V. (Eds.), Doing criminological research (pp. 245–261). London, England: SAGE. Google Scholar | |
| Jie, Q., Wei, Z., Jing, W. (2001, July 25). Justice forever prevails over evil—On investigations into Xiaman’s sensational smuggling case (Parts 1, 2, & 3). Xinhua. Retrieved from LexisNexis. Google Scholar | |
| Johnson, I., Wines, M. (2011, July 23). China arrests its most-wanted fugitive after Canada deports him. The New York Times. Google Scholar | |
| Joossens, L., Merriman, D., Ross, H., Raw, M. (2009). How eliminating the global illicit cigarette trade would increase tax revenue and save lives. Paris, France: International Union Against Tuberculosis and Lung Disease. Google Scholar | |
| Joossens, L., Raw, M. (2002). Turning of the tap: An update on cigarette smuggling in the UK and Sweden with recommendations to control smuggling. London, England: Cancer Research UK. Google Scholar | |
| Joossens, L., Raw, M. (2008). Progress in combating cigarette smuggling: Controlling the supply chain. Tobacco Control, 17, 399–404. Google Scholar, Crossref, Medline, ISI | |
| Korski, T . (1997, August 28). 250 arrested in raids over illegal cigarettes. South China Morning Post. Retrieved from LexisNexis. Google Scholar | |
| Laris, M . (1998, September 1). Chinese plan to crack down on smuggling. Washington Post. Retrieved from LexisNexis. Google Scholar | |
| Larmer, B . (2002, November 11). A hard habit to break. Newsweek. Retrieved from LexisNexis. Google Scholar | |
| Ledeneva, A. V. (1998). Russia’s economy of favours: Blat, networking, and informal exchange. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. Google Scholar | |
| Lee, G . (2004, February 27). ICAC arrests 20 over $ 116m cigarette racket. The standard. Retrieved from LexisNexis. Google Scholar | |
| Lee, K., Collin, J. (2006). Key to the future: British American tobacco and cigarette smuggling in China. PLoS Medicine, 3, e228. Retrieved from http://web.squ.edu.om/med-Lib/med/net/E-TALC9/html/clients/plos/pdf/10.1371_journal.pmed.0030228-S.pdf Google Scholar, Crossref, ISI | |
| Lee, K., Gilmore, A. B., Collin, J. (2004). Breaking and re-entering: British American Tobacco in China 1979-2000. Tobacco Control, 13, ii88–ii95. Google Scholar, Crossref, Medline, ISI | |
| LeGresley, E., Lee, K., Muggli, M. E., Patel, P., Collin, J., Hurt, R. D. (2008). British American tobacco and the “insidious impact of illicit trade” in cigarettes across Africa. Tobacco Control, 17, 339–346. Google Scholar, Crossref, Medline, ISI | |
| Liang, B., Lu, H. (2006). Conducting fieldwork in China. Journal of Contemporary Criminal Justice, 22, 157–172. Google Scholar, SAGE Journals | |
| Liaoning, Ribao . (1985, April 20). Growth in counterfeit goods under the pretence of invigoration. Retrieved from LexisNexis. Google Scholar | |
| Lin, Y.-C. J. (2011). Fake stuff: China and the rise of counterfeit goods. New York, NY: Routledge. Google Scholar, Crossref | |
| Lintner, B. (2004). Chinese organised crime. Global Crime, 6, 84–96. Google Scholar, Crossref | |
| Liu, J. (2005). Crime patterns during the market transition in China. British Journal of Criminology, 45, 613–633. Google Scholar, Crossref, ISI | |
| Liu, M . (1999, December 20). The Mafia city? Newsweek. Retrieved from LexisNexis. Google Scholar | |
| Lo, C . (2003, November 12). Arrests quadruple on illegal sales of cigarettes. South China Morning Post. Retrieved from LexisNexis. Google Scholar | |
| Lo, S. S.-H. (2008). The politics of cross-border crime in greater China: Case studies of Mainland China, Hong Kong, and Macao. Armonk, NY: M.E. Sharpe. Google Scholar | |
| Marsh, N. (2002). Two Sides of the Same Coin? The Legal and Illegal Trade in Small Arms. Brown Journal of World Affairs, 9, 217–228. Google Scholar | |
| Mertha, A. C. (2005). The politics of piracy: Intellectual property in contemporary China. Ithaca NY: Cornell University Press. Google Scholar | |
| MacCharles, T . (2008, May 8). RCMP sounds alarm over surge of illegal smokes. The Toronto Star. Retrieved from LexisNexis. Google Scholar | |
| Macmanus, S . (1999, September 17). 14m cigs stubbed. The Mirror. Retrieved from LexisNexis. Google Scholar | |
| Mathews, J . (1980, April 13). Mistrust of outsiders, Mao-worship linger in Chinese Province. Washington Post. Retrieved from LexisNexis. Google Scholar, Medline | |
| McGregor, J. (2005). One billion customers: Lessons from the front lines of doing business in China. New York, NY: Free Press. Google Scholar | |
| McGrory, D . (2005, February 28). Customs agents sent to smoke out China’s deadly cigarettes. The Times. Retrieved from LexisNexis. Google Scholar | |
| Michael, P . (2003, June 10). Brazen cigarette pirates widen net. South China Morning Post. Retrieved from LexisNexis. Google Scholar | |
| Minder, L . (1998, July 25). China’s Jiang faces challenge in separating army from business. Deutsche Presse Agentur. Retrieved from LexisNexis. Google Scholar | |
| Mitchell, H . (2010). Malaysia struggles to curb illicit imports. Tobacco Asia, Q1. Retrieved from http://www.tobaccoasia.com/previous-issues/features/64-articles-q1-10.html Google Scholar | |
| Naughton, B. (2007). The Chinese economy: Transitions and growth. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. Google Scholar | |
| New China News Agency . (1980, December 6). The faking of brand names. Retrieved from LexisNexis. Google Scholar | |
| New China News Agency . (1981, June 13). Yunnan leaders criticized for illegal tobacco trade. Retrieved from LexisNexis. Google Scholar | |
| New China News Agency . (1994, March 7). Task force meets to review “arduous struggle” of antismuggling work campaign. Retrieved from LexisNexis. Google Scholar | |
| New China News Agency . (1994, August 6). Statistics show “rampant” coastal smuggling “effectively checked.” Retrieved from LexisNexis. Google Scholar | |
| OECD . (2008). The economic impact of counterfeiting and piracy. Paris, France: OECD Publications. Google Scholar | |
| Oliver, P. E., Maney, G. M. (2000). Political processes and local newspaper coverage of protest events: from selection bias to triadic interactions. American Journal of Sociology, 106, 463–505. Google Scholar, Crossref, ISI | |
| O’Neill, M . (1999, October 21). Beijing losing in fake-cigarette war. South China Morning Post. Retrieved from LexisNexis. Google Scholar | |
| Pagnamenta, R . (2007, October 8). Hi-tech packets to smoke out crooks. The Times. Retrieved from LexisNexis. Google Scholar | |
| Peerenboom, R. (2008). China modernizes: Threat to the West or model for the rest? New York, NY: Oxford University Press. Google Scholar, Crossref | |
| Peking Home Service . (1979, April 27). Calls to combat illegalities in village fairs. Retrieved from LexisNexis. Google Scholar | |
| Peking Home Service . (1987, February 24). Difficulties of stopping the making of fake brand-name cigarettes. Retrieved from LexisNexis. Google Scholar | |
| People’s Daily . (1985, October 10). First edition of consumer’s paper marked by Xue Muqiao article on prices. Retrieved from LexisNexis. Google Scholar | |
| Ping Kuo Jih Pao . (1998, September 28). Army’s Zhang Wannian reportedly to be made to resign over army smuggling. Retrieved from LexisNexis. Google Scholar | |
| Porter, B . (1993, September 7). Trade goes up in smoke. South China Morning Post. Retrieved from LexisNexis. Google Scholar | |
| Pun, P . (2003, December 2). Blitz targets illicit cigarette industry. The Standard. Retrieved from LexisNexis. Google Scholar | |
| Reardon, L. C. (1996). The rise and decline of China’s export processing zones. Journal of Contemporary China, 5, 281–303. Google Scholar, Crossref | |
| Rosenthal, E . (2000, March 6). China’s fierce war on smuggling uproots a vast hidden economy. The New York Times. Retrieved from LexisNexis. Google Scholar | |
| Schloss, G . (1997, August 27). HK boosts illicit Pyongyang trade. South China Morning Post. Retrieved from LexisNexis. Google Scholar | |
| Shanghai City Service . (1983, May 28). Shanghai meeting on market management and price control. Retrieved from LexisNexis. Google Scholar | |
| Shelley, L., Melzer, S. (2008). The nexus of organized crime and terrorism: Two case studies in cigarette smuggling. The International Journal of Comparative and Applied Criminal Justice, 32, 43–63. Google Scholar, Crossref | |
| Shen, A. (2005). Sentencing policy and practice in the People’s Republic of China: An empirical study on sentencing burglars (Unpublished doctoral dissertation). Thames Valley University, London, UK. Google Scholar | |
| Shen, A., Antonopoulos, G. A., von Lampe, K. (2010). The dragon breathes smoke: Cigarette counterfeiting in the People’s Republic of China. British Journal of Criminology, 50, 239–258. Google Scholar, Crossref, ISI | |
| Shieh, S. (2005). The rise of collective corruption in China: The Xiamen smuggling case. Journal of Contemporary China, 14, 67–91. Google Scholar, Crossref | |
| Shirk, S. L. (1993). The political logic of economic reform in China. Berkeley: University of California Press. Google Scholar | |
| Smith, C. R . (1996, December 18). Smugglers stoke BAT’s cigarette sales in China. Wall Street Journal. Retrieved from LexisNexis. Google Scholar | |
| Song, V . (2003, December 5). Smoke stash seized. The Toronto Sun. Retrieved from LexisNexis. Google Scholar | |
| South China Morning Post . (1994, November 17). $ 900m lost in cigarette smuggling. Retrieved from LexisNexis. Google Scholar | |
| Sun, L. H . (1992, March 14). Smuggling of people, goods is big business in China. Washington Post. Retrieved from LexisNexis. Google Scholar, Medline | |
| Usborne, D . (1989, August 19). A smuggler’s paradise flourishes in China. The Independent. Retrieved from LexisNexis. Google Scholar | |
| van Dijck, M. (2007). Cigarette shuffle: Organising tobacco tax evasion in the Netherlands. In van Duyne, P.C., Maljevic, A., van Dijck, M., von Lampe, K., Harvey, J. (Eds.), Crime business and crime money in Europe: The dirty linen of illicit enterprise (pp. 157–193). Nijmegen, the Netherlands: Wolf Legal Publishers. Google Scholar | |
| van Duyne, P. C. (2003). Organizing cigarette smuggling and policy making ending up in smoke, Crime, Law and Social Change, 39, 285–317. Google Scholar, Crossref, ISI | |
| von Lampe, K. (2002). The trafficking in untaxed cigarettes in Germany: A case study of the social embeddedness of illegal markets. In van Duyne, P. C., von Lampe, K., Passas, N. (Eds.), Upperworld and underworld in cross-border crime (pp. 141–161). Nijmegen, the Netherlands: Wolf Legal Publishers. Google Scholar | |
| von Lampe, K. (2006). The cigarette black market in Germany and in the United Kingdom, Journal of Financial Crime, 13, 235–254. Google Scholar, Crossref | |
| von Lampe, K. (2011). The illegal cigarette trade. In Natarajan, M. (Ed.), International crime and justice (pp.148–154). New York, NY: Cambridge University Press. Google Scholar | |
| Wang, J. (2009). Global-market building as state building: China’s entry into the WTO and market reforms of China’s tobacco industry. Theory and Society, 38, 165–194. Google Scholar, Crossref, ISI | |
| Wang, P. (2011). The Chinese Mafia: Private protection in a socialist market economy. Global Crime, 12, 290–311. Google Scholar, Crossref | |
| Po, Wen Wei . (1994, March 30). Fujian: counterfeit cigarettes “everywhere.” Retrieved from LexisNexis. Google Scholar | |
| Woolley, J. T. (2000). Using media-based data in studies of politics. American Journal of Political Science, 44, 156–173. Google Scholar, Crossref, ISI | |
| Woolrich, P . (1992, September 13). Oil giants hit by counterfeits. South China Morning Post. Retrieved from LexisNexis. Google Scholar | |
| WuDunn, S . (1989, November 16). China taking a harsh line with vendors. The New York Times. Retrieved from LexisNexis. Google Scholar | |
| Xinhua . (1985, May 20). The China Tobacco Society. Retrieved from LexisNexis. Google Scholar | |
| Xinhua . (1985, May 24). Counterfeit cigarettes “flooding” into some areas. Retrieved from LexisNexis. Google Scholar | |
| Xinhua . (1985, November 10). Need to protect state’s tobacco monopoly stressed. Retrieved from LexisNexis. Google Scholar | |
| Xinhua . (1987, July 13). Measures to check illegal tobacco sales. Retrieved from LexisNexis. Google Scholar | |
| Xinhua . (1987, July 21). Cigarette issues have sounded an alarm. Retrieved from LexisNexis. Google Scholar | |
| Xinhua . (1987, July 24). Fight against fake goods will be intensified. Retrieved from LexisNexis. Google Scholar | |
| Xinhua . (1987, November 10). Illegal cigarette ring exposed. Retrieved from LexisNexis. Google Scholar | |
| Xinhua . (1987, November 17). Small cigarette factories still operating despite ban. Retrieved from LexisNexis. Google Scholar | |
| Xinhua . (1987, November 24). Officials punished for illegal cigarette sales. Retrieved from LexisNexis. Google Scholar | |
| Xinhua . (1988, October 3). Customs authorities’ successes. Retrieved from LexisNexis. Google Scholar | |
| Xinhua . (1989, March 11). Smuggling on the increase. Retrieved from LexisNexis. Google Scholar | |
| Xinhua . (1990, September 5). Press conference on smuggling and speculation. Retrieved from LexisNexis. Google Scholar | |
| Xinhua . (1991, May 21). Smuggled cigarettes burned in Zhejiang by customs. Retrieved from LexisNexis. Google Scholar | |
| Xinhua . (1991, November 12). “Evil can never beat virtue” in war against tobacco smuggling. Retrieved from LexisNexis. Google Scholar | |
| Xinhua . (1991, December 26). Death sentences for smugglers. Retrieved from LexisNexis. Google Scholar | |
| Xinhua . (1992, December 18). Government seizes 2.5m cartons of fake cigarettes. Retrieved from LexisNexis. Google Scholar | |
| Xinhua . (1994, May 29). Three officials executed for smuggling. Retrieved from LexisNexis. Google Scholar | |
| Xinhua . (1996, April 21). Anti-smoking bans affecting China’s tobacco industry. Retrieved from LexisNexis. Google Scholar | |
| Xinhua . (1998, March 31). China tightens controls over marketing of tobacco. Retrieved from LexisNexis. Google Scholar | |
| Xinhua . (1999, June 22). Guangxi steps up anti-smuggling drive. Retrieved from LexisNexis. Google Scholar | |
| Xinhua . (1999, August 17). Chinese court gives life sentences for cigarette smuggling. Retrieved from LexisNexis. Google Scholar | |
| Xinhua . (1999, October 30). China: Product quality problem still serious. Retrieved from LexisNexis. Google Scholar | |
| Xinhua . (2000, February 1). Smuggling cases in China rise over 35 per cent in 1999. Retrieved from LexisNexis. Google Scholar | |
| Xinhua . (2000, July 26). Anti-smuggling operations help raise customs revenue. Retrieved from LexisNexis. Google Scholar | |
| Xinhua . (2001, August 16). China: Villagers obstruct police team during confiscation of counterfeit goods. Retrieved from LexisNexis. Google Scholar | |
| Xinhua . (2002, March 28). Cigarette smugglers’ secret warehouses uncovered. Retrieved from LexisNexis. Google Scholar | |
| Yu, X . (1996, May 13). Police battle to stub out cigarette counterfeiters. South China Morning Post. Retrieved from LexisNexis. Google Scholar | |
| Yuan, X . (2008). Review the 30-year reform and opening-up in China. China’s Reform. Retrieved from http://news.xinhuanet.com/politics/2008-05/17/content_8195415.htm Google Scholar | |
| Zhang, L., Messner, S. F., Lu, J. (2007). Criminological research in contemporary China: Challenges and lessons learned from a large-scale criminal victimization survey. International Journal of Offender Therapy and Comparative Criminology, 51, 110–121. Google Scholar, SAGE Journals, ISI | |
| Zhongguo Tongxun, She . (1991, July 25). High-sea smuggling in south-eastern coastal regions “rampant”. Retrieved from LexisNexis. Google Scholar | |
| Zhongguo Tongxun, She . (1992, October 5). Crack-down on armoured boat smuggling in Guangdong. Retrieved from LexisNexis. Google Scholar | |
| Zhongguo Tongxun, She . (1993, May 13). Coastal provinces step up fight against “serious” smuggling at sea. Retrieved from LexisNexis. Google Scholar | |
| Zhongguo Tongxun, She . (1994, October 31). Haikou customs seize 15 smuggling ships over three-month period. Retrieved from LexisNexis. Google Scholar | |
| Zhongguo Xinwen, She . (1991, April 8). Public Security Minister on anti-Li Peng poem and smuggling. Retrieved from LexisNexis. Google Scholar | |
| Zhongguo Xinwen, She . (1994, March 21). Fujian police chief request funds to deal with coast “ridden with smuggling.” Retrieved from LexisNexis. Google Scholar | |
| Zhongguo Xinwen, She . (1996, September 12). Senior county officials suspended after smuggling investigation. Retrieved from LexisNexis. Google Scholar | |
| Zhou, H. (2000). Fiscal decentralization and the development of the tobacco industry in China, China Economic Review, 11, 114–133. Google Scholar, Crossref, ISI |
