![[PDF]](/pb-assets/Icons/adobe-pdf-icon-1498649896243.png){kind=icon}
Abstract
The authors argue that a new six-dimensional framework for personality structure—the HEXACO model— constitutes a viable alternative to the well-known Big Five or five-factor model. The new model is consistent with the cross-culturally replicated finding of a common six-dimensional structure containing the factors Honesty-Humility (H), Emotionality (E), eExtraversion (X), Agreeableness (A), Conscientiousness (C), and Openness to Experience (O). Also, the HEXACO model predicts several personality phenomena that are not explained within the B5/FFM, including the relations of personality factors with theoretical biologists' constructs of reciprocal and kin altruism and the patterns of sex differences in personality traits. In addition, the HEXACO model accommodates several personality variables that are poorly assimilated within the B5/FFM.
| Angleitner, A. , & Ostendorf, F. (1989, July). Personality factors via self- and peer-ratings based on a representative sample of German trait descriptive terms. Paper presented at the First European Congress of Psychology, Amsterdam. Google Scholar | |
| Ashton, M.C. , & Lee, K. (2001). A theoretical basis for the major dimensions of personality. European Journal of Personality, 15, 327-353. Google Scholar, Crossref, ISI | |
| Ashton, M.C. , & Lee, K. (2002). Six independent factors of personality variation: A response to Saucier. European Journal of Personality, 16, 63-75. Google Scholar, Crossref, ISI | |
| Ashton, M.C. , & Lee, K. (2005a). A defence of the lexical approach to the study of personality structure. European Journal of Personality , 19, 5-24. Google Scholar, Crossref, ISI | |
| Ashton, M.C. , & Lee, K. (2005b). Honesty-Humility, the Big Five, and the five-factor model. Journal of Personality, 73, 1321-1353. Google Scholar, Crossref, Medline, ISI | |
| Ashton, M.C. , Lee, K. , & de Vries, R.E. (2005). Six factors in the Croatian personality lexicon. Unpublished manuscript. Google Scholar | |
| Ashton, M.C. , Lee, K. , de Vries, R.E. , Perugini, M. , Gnisci, A. , & Sergi, I. (in press). The HEXACO model of personality structure and indigenous lexical personality dimensions in Italian, Dutch, and English. Journal of Research in Personality. Google Scholar, ISI | |
| Ashton, M.C. , Lee, K. , de Vries, R.E. , Szarota, P. , Marcus, B. , Wasti, S.A. , et al. (2006, July). Lexical studies of personality structure: An examination of six-factor solutions. Paper presented at the 13th European Conference on Personality, Athens , Greece. Google Scholar | |
| Ashton, M.C. , Lee, K. , & Goldberg, L.R. (2004). A hierarchical analysis of 1,710 English personality-descriptive adjectives. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 87, 707-721. Google Scholar, Crossref, Medline, ISI | |
| Ashton, M.C. , Lee, K. , & Paunonen, S.V. (2002). What is the central feature of extraversion? Social attention versus reward sensitivity. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 83, 245-252. Google Scholar, Crossref, Medline, ISI | |
| Ashton, M.C. , Lee, K. , Perugini, M. , Szarota, P. , de Vries, R.E. , Di Blas, L. , et al. (2004). A six-factor structure of personality-descriptive adjectives: Solutions from psycholexical studies in seven languages. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 86, 356-366. Google Scholar, Crossref, Medline, ISI | |
| Ashton, M.C. , Paunonen, S.V. , Helmes, E. , & Jackson, D.N. (1998). Kin altruism, reciprocal altruism, and the Big Five personality factors. Evolution and Human Behavior, 19, 243-255. Google Scholar, Crossref | |
| Axelrod, R. , & Hamilton, W.D. (1981). The evolution of cooperation . Science, 211, 1390-1396. Google Scholar, Crossref, Medline, ISI | |
| Boies, K. , Lee, K. , Ashton, M.C. , Pascal, S. , & Nicol, A.A.M. (2001). The structure of the French personality lexicon . European Journal of Personality, 15, 277-295. Google Scholar, Crossref, ISI | |
| Buss, D.M. (1996). Social adaptation and five major factors of personality . In J. S. Wiggins (Ed.), The five-factor model of personality (pp. 180-207). New York: Guilford. Google Scholar | |
| Campbell, A. (1999). Staying alive: Evolution, culture, and women's intrasexual aggression. Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 22, 223-252. Google Scholar, Crossref, ISI | |
| Caprara, G.V. , & Perugini, M. (1994). Personality described by adjectives: Generalizability of the Big Five to the Italian lexical context. European Journal of Personality, 8, 357-369. Google Scholar, Crossref, ISI | |
| Cattell, R.B. (1947). Confirmation and clarification of primary personality factors. Psychometrika, 12, 197-220. Google Scholar, Crossref, Medline, ISI | |
| Chance, M.R.A. , & Jolly, C.J. (1970). Social groups of monkeys, apes, and men. New York: E. P. Dutton. Google Scholar | |
| Chen, X.-P. , & Bachrach, D.G. (2003). Tolerance of free-riding: The effects of defection size, defection pattern, and social orientation in a repeated public goods dilemma. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 90, 139-147. Google Scholar, Crossref, ISI | |
| Church, A.T. , Reyes, J.A.S. , Katigbak, M.S. , & Grimm, S.D. (1997). Filipino personality structure and the Big Five model: A lexical approach. Journal of Personality, 65, 477-528. Google Scholar, Crossref, Medline, ISI | |
| Costa, P.T. , Jr., & McCrae, R.R. (1988). From catalog to classification: Murray's needs and the five-factor model. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 55, 258-265. Google Scholar, Crossref, ISI | |
| Costa, P.T. , Jr., & McCrae, R.R. (1992). NEO Personality Inventory—Revised (NEO-PI-R) and NEO Five-Factor Inventory (NEO-FFI) professional manual. Odessa, FL: Psychological Assessment Resources. Google Scholar | |
| De Raad, B. (1992). The replicability of the Big Five personality dimensions in three word-classes of the Dutch language. European Journal of Personality, 6, 15-29. Google Scholar, Crossref, ISI | |
| De Raad, B. , Hendriks, A.A.J. , & Hofstee, W.K.B. (1992). Towards a refined structure of personality traits. European Journal of Personality, 6, 301-319. Google Scholar, Crossref, ISI | |
| De Raad, B. , & Szirmak, Z. (1994). The search for the “Big Five” in a non—Indo-European language: The Hungarian trait structure and its relationship to the EPQ and the PTS. European Review of Applied Psychology , 44, 17-24. Google Scholar, ISI | |
| Di Blas, L. , & Forzi, M. (1998). An alternative taxonomic study of personality-descriptive adjectives in the Italian language. European Journal of Personality , 12, 75-101. Google Scholar, Crossref, ISI | |
| Di Blas, L. , & Forzi, M. (1999). Refining a descriptive structure of personality attributes in the Italian language. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 76, 451-481. Google Scholar, Crossref, ISI | |
| Dickman, S.J. (1990). Functional and dysfunctional impulsivity: Personality and cognitive correlates. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 58, 95-102. Google Scholar, Crossref, Medline, ISI | |
| Digman, J.M. (1997). Higher-order factors of the Big Five. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 73, 1246-1256. Google Scholar, Crossref, Medline, ISI | |
| Digman, J.M. , & Takemoto-Chock, N.K. (1981). Factors in the natural language of personality: Re-analysis, comparison, and interpretation of six major studies. Multivariate Behavioral Research, 16, 149-170. Google Scholar, Crossref, Medline, ISI | |
| Fehr, E. , & Gächter, S. (2002). Altruistic punishment in humans. Nature, 415, 137-140. Google Scholar, Crossref, Medline, ISI | |
| Frank, R.H. (1988). Passions within reason: The strategic role of the emotions. New York: Norton. Google Scholar | |
| Gilbert, P. (1989). Human nature and suffering. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum. Google Scholar | |
| Gilbert, P. (1992). Depression: The evolution of powerlessness. New York: Guilford. Google Scholar | |
| Goldberg, L.R. (1981). Language and individual differences: The search for universals in personality lexicons. In L. Wheeler (Ed.), Review of personality and social psychology (Vol. 2, pp. 141-165). Beverly Hills, CA: Sage. Google Scholar | |
| Goldberg, L.R. (1990). An alternative “description of personality”: The Big-Five factor structure. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 59, 1216-1229. Google Scholar, Crossref, Medline, ISI | |
| Goldberg, L.R. , & Somer, O. (2000). The hierarchical structure of common Turkish person-descriptive adjectives. European Journal of Personality, 14, 497-531. Google Scholar, Crossref, ISI | |
| Gunnthorsdottir, A. , McCabe, K. , & Smith, V. (2002). Using the Machiavellianism instrument to predict trustworthiness in a bargaining game. Journal of Economic Psychology, 23, 49-66. Google Scholar, Crossref, ISI | |
| Hahn, D.-W. , Lee, K. , & Ashton, M.C. (1999). A factor analysis of the most frequently used Korean personality trait adjectives. European Journal of Personality , 13, 261-282. Google Scholar, Crossref, ISI | |
| Hamilton, W.D. (1964). The genetical evolution of social behavior: I, II. Journal of Theoretical Biology, 7, 1-52. Google Scholar | |
| Hogan, R. (1996). A socioanalytic perspective on the five-factor model. In J. S. Wiggins (Ed.), The five-factor model of personality (pp. 163-179). New York: Guilford. Google Scholar | |
| Hrebickova, M. (1995). The structural model of personality based on the lexical analysis: A Czech replication study of the five-factor model based on a comprehensive taxonomy of personality-descriptive adjectives. Unpublished manuscript, Institute of Psychology, Academy of Sciences of the Czech Republic, Brno. Google Scholar | |
| Hwang, P. , & Burgers, W.P. (1997). Properties of trust: An analytical review. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 69, 67-73. Google Scholar, Crossref, ISI | |
| Kameda, T. , & Nakanishi, D. (2002). Cost-benefit analysis of social/cultural learning in a nonstationary uncertain environment: An evolutionary simulation and an experiment with human subjects. Evolution and Human Behavior , 23, 373-393. Google Scholar, Crossref | |
| Lee, K. , & Ashton, M.C. (2004). Psychometric properties of the HEXACO Personality Inventory. Multivariate Behavioral Research, 39, 329-358. Google Scholar, Crossref, Medline, ISI | |
| Lee, K. , & Ashton, M.C. (2005). Psychopathy, Machiavellianism, and narcissism in the five-factor model and the HEXACO model of personality structure. Personality and Individual Differences, 38, 1571-1582. Google Scholar, Crossref, ISI | |
| Lee, K. , & Ashton, M.C. (2006a). Further assessment of the HEXACO Personality Inventory: Two new facet scales and an observer report form. Psychological Assessment, 18, 182-191. Google Scholar, Crossref, Medline, ISI | |
| Lee, K. , & Ashton, M.C. (2006b). Re-analysis of the structure of the Greek personality lexicon. Unpublished manuscript. Google Scholar | |
| Lee, K. , Ashton, M.C. , & de Vries, R.E. (2005). Predicting workplace delinquency and integrity with the HEXACO and five-factor models of personality structure . Human Performance, 18, 179-197. Google Scholar, Crossref, ISI | |
| Lee, K. , Ashton, M.C. , Morrison, D.L. , Cordery, J. , & Dunlop, P.D. (2006, May). An overview of the HEXACO model of personality structure and the HEXACO Personality Inventory. Paper presented at the annual meeting of the Society for Industrial and Organizational Psychology, Dallas, TX. Google Scholar | |
| Lee, K. , Gizzarone, M. , & Ashton, M.C. (2003). Personality and the likelihood to sexually harass . Sex Roles, 49, 59-69. Google Scholar, Crossref, ISI | |
| Lee, K. , Ogunfowora, B. , & Ashton, M.C. (2005). Personality traits beyond the Big Five: Are they within the HEXACO space? Journal of Personality, 73, 1437-1463. Google Scholar, Crossref, Medline, ISI | |
| MacDonald, K. (1995). Evolution, the five-factor model, and levels of personality. Journal of Personality, 63, 525-567. Google Scholar, Crossref, ISI | |
| MacDonald, K. (1998). Evolution, culture, and the five-factor model . Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 29, 119-149. Google Scholar, SAGE Journals, ISI | |
| McCrae, R.R. (1989). Why I advocate the five-factor model: Joint analyses of the NEO-PI with other instruments. In D. M. Buss & N. Cantor (Eds.), Personality psychology: Recent trends and emerging directions (pp. 237-245). New York/Berlin: Springer-Verlag . Google Scholar | |
| McCrae, R.R. , & Costa, P.T. , Jr. (1997). Personality trait structure as a human universal . American Psychologist, 52, 509-516. Google Scholar, Crossref, Medline, ISI | |
| McCrae, R.R. , & Costa, P.T. , Jr. (2003). Personality in adulthood. New York: Guilford. Google Scholar, Crossref | |
| McCrae, R.R. , Costa, P.T. , Jr., & Piedmont, R.L. (1993). Folk concepts, natural language, and psychological constructs: The California Psychological Inventory and the five-factor model. Journal of Personality, 61, 1-26. Google Scholar, Crossref, ISI | |
| McCrae, R.R. , & John, O.P. (1992). An introduction to the five-factor model and its applications. Journal of Personality, 60, 175-215. Google Scholar, Crossref, Medline, ISI | |
| Mlacic, B. , & Ostendorf, F. (2005). Taxonomy and structure of Croatian personality-descriptive adjectives. European Journal of Personality, 19, 117-152. Google Scholar, Crossref, ISI | |
| Norman, W. (1963). Toward an adequate taxonomy of personality attributes: Replicated factor structure in peer nomination personality ratings. Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 66, 574-583. Google Scholar, Crossref, Medline, ISI | |
| Nowak, M. , & Sigmund, K. (1993). A strategy of win-stay, lose-shift that outperforms tit-for-tat in the Prisoner's Dilemma game. Nature, 364, 56-58. Google Scholar, Crossref, Medline, ISI | |
| Ostendorf, F. , & Angleitner, A. (1993, July). A German replication study of the five-factor model based on a comprehensive taxonomy of personality-descriptive adjectives. Paper presented at the 6th meeting of the International Society for the Study of Individual Differences, Baltimore. Google Scholar | |
| Ostendorf, F. , Mlacic, B. , Hrebickova, M. , & Szarota, P. (2004, July). In search of the sixth big factor of personality in four European languages. Paper presented at the 12th European Conference on Personality, Groningen , Netherlands. Google Scholar | |
| Paulhus, D.L. , & Williams, K.M. (2002). The dark triad of personality: Narcissism, Machiavellianism, and psychopathy. Journal of Research in Personality, 36, 556-563. Google Scholar, Crossref, ISI | |
| Paunonen, S.V. , Haddock, G. , Forsterling, F. , & Keinonen, M. (2003). Broad versus narrow personality measures and the prediction of behaviour across cultures. European Journal of Personality, 17, 413-433. Google Scholar, Crossref, ISI | |
| Perugini, M. , Gallucci, M. , Presaghi, F. , & Ercolani, A.P. (2003). The personal norm of reciprocity . European Journal of Personality, 17, 251-283. Google Scholar, Crossref, ISI | |
| Piedmont, R. (1999). Does spirituality represent the sixth factor of personality? Spiritual transcendence and the five-factor model. Journal of Personality, 67, 985-1013. Google Scholar, Crossref, ISI | |
| Pryor, J.B. (1987). Sexual harassment proclivities in men. Sex Roles, 17, 269-290. Google Scholar, Crossref, ISI | |
| Saucier, G. , Georgiades, S. , Tsaousis, I. , & Goldberg, L.R. (2005). The factor structure of Greek personality adjectives. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 88, 856-875. Google Scholar, Crossref, Medline, ISI | |
| Saucier, G. , & Goldberg, L.R. (1996). Evidence for the Big Five in analyses of familiar English personality adjectives. European Journal of Personality, 10, 61-77. Google Scholar, Crossref, ISI | |
| Szarota, P. (1995). Taxonomy and structure of Polish personality-relevant adjectives. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of Warsaw, Poland. Google Scholar | |
| Szirmak, Z. , & De Raad, B. (1994). Taxonomy and structure of Hungarian personality traits. European Journal of Personality, 8, 95-117. Google Scholar, Crossref, ISI | |
| Taylor, S.E. , Klein, L.C. , Lewis, B.P. , Gruenewald, T.L. , Gurung, R.A.R. , & Updegraff, J.A. (2000). Biobehavioral responses to stress in females: Tend-and-befriend, not fight-or-flight. Psychological Review, 107, 411-429. Google Scholar, Crossref, Medline, ISI | |
| Tellegen, A. , & Atkinson, G. (1974). Openness to absorbing and self-altering experiences (“absorption”), a trait related to hypnotic susceptibility. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 83, 268-277. Google Scholar, Crossref, Medline, ISI | |
| Trivers, R.L. (1971). The evolution of reciprocal altruism. Quarterly Review of Biology, 46, 35-57. Google Scholar, Crossref, ISI | |
| Tupes, E.C. , & Christal, R.E. (1961). Recurrent personality factors based on trait ratings (USAF Tech. Rep. No. 61-97). San Antonio, TX: Lackland Air Force Base. Google Scholar, Crossref | |
| Tupes, E.C. , & Christal, R.E. (1992). Recurrent personality factors based on trait ratings. Journal of Personality, 60, 225-251. Google Scholar, Crossref, Medline, ISI | |
| Wasti, A. , Lee, K. , Ashton, M.C. , & Somer, O. (2006). The Turkish personality lexicon and the HEXACO model of personality. Manuscript submitted for publication. Google Scholar | |
| Wiggins, J.S. (1979). A psychological taxonomy of trait-descriptive terms: The interpersonal domain. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 59, 781-790. Google Scholar | |
| Wilson, E.O. (1975). Sociobiology: The new synthesis. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. Google Scholar | |
| Yoo, T.-Y. , Lee, K. , & Ashton, M.C. (2004). Psychometric properties of the Korean version of the HEXACO Personality Inventory. Korean Journal of Social and Personality Psychology, 18, 61-75. Google Scholar |
