A sizable body of empirical evidence indicates political conversation—both face-to-face and online—drives participatory engagement. Digital, social, and mobile media provide new avenues and tools for political talk, with affordances that may be particularly conducive to expression effects—that is, the impact of message production on the sender. This essay contends that an emphasis on deliberative democracy has limited attention to the psychological implications of political expression and creative production via information technologies and digital media.

Bargh, J. A., Schul, Y. (1980). On the cognitive benefits of teaching. Journal of Educational Psychology, 72, 593604. Google Scholar, Crossref, ISI
Benhabib, S. (1996). Toward a deliberative model of democratic legitimacy. In Benhabib, S. (Ed.), Democracy and difference: Contesting the boundaries of the political. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 6794. Google Scholar
Bode, L., Vraga, E. K., Borah, P., Shah, D. V. (2014). A new space for political behavior: Political social networking and its democratic consequences. Journal of Computer-Mediated Communication, 19, 414429. Google Scholar, Crossref, ISI
Chadwick, A., Howard, P. N. (2009). Introduction: New directions in Internet politics research. In Chadwick, A., Howard, P. N. (Eds.), Routledge handbook of internet politics (pp. 112). New York, NY: Routledge. Google Scholar
Cho, J., Shah, D. V., McLeod, J. M., McLeod, D. M., Scholl, R. M., Gotlieb, M. R. (2009). Campaigns, reflection, and deliberation: Advancing an O-S-R-O-R model of communication effects. Communication Theory, 19, 6688. Google Scholar, Crossref, ISI
Dahlgren, P. (2005). The Internet, public spheres, and political communication: Dispersion and deliberation. Political Communication, 22, 147162. Google Scholar, Crossref, ISI
Delli Carpini, M. X., Cook, F. L., Jacobs, L. R. (2004). Public deliberation, discursive participation, and citizen engagement: A review of the empirical literature. Annual Review of Political Science, 7, 315344. Google Scholar, Crossref, ISI
Dewey, J. (1927). The public and its problems. In Boydston, J. A. (Ed.), The later works, 1925–1953 (Vol. 2). Carbondale: Southern Illinois University Press, 235372. (Original work published 1984). Google Scholar
Dewey, J. (1997). Experience and education. New York, NY: Simon & Schuster. (Original work published 1938) Google Scholar
Dylko, I., McCluskey, M. (2012). Media effects in an era of rapid technological transformation: A case of user-generated content and political participation. Communication Theory, 22, 250278. Google Scholar, Crossref, ISI
Ekström, M., Östman, J. (2015). Information, interaction, and creative production: The effects of three forms of Internet use on youth democratic engagement. Communication Research, 42, 796818. Google Scholar, SAGE Journals, ISI
Enslin, P., Pendlebury, S., Tjiattas, M. (2001). Deliberative democracy, diversity and the challenges of citizenship education. Journal of Philosophy of Education, 35, 115130. Google Scholar, Crossref, ISI
Eveland, W. P., Hayes, A. F., Shah, D. V., Kwak, N. (2005). Observations on estimation of communication effects on political knowledge and a test of intracommunication mediation. Political Communication, 22, 505509. Google Scholar, Crossref, ISI
Eveland, W. P., Shah, D. V., Kwak, N. (2003). Assessing causality in the cognitive mediation model: A panel study of motivations, information processing and learning during campaign 2000. Communication Research, 30, 359386. Google Scholar, SAGE Journals, ISI
Fishkin, J. (2009). When the people speak: Deliberative democracy and public consultation. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press. Google Scholar
Garlough, C. L. (2013). Desi Divas: Political activism in South Asian American cultural performances. Jackson: University Press of Mississippi. Google Scholar, Crossref
Gil de Zúñiga, H., Molyneux, L., Zheng, P. (2014). Social media, political expression, and political participation: Panel analysis of lagged and concurrent relationships. Journal of Communication, 64, 612634. Google Scholar, Crossref, ISI
Habermas, J. (2006). Political communication in media society: Does democracy still enjoy an epistemic dimension? The impact of normative theory on empirical research. Communication Theory, 16, 411426. Google Scholar, Crossref, ISI
Han, J. Y., Shah, D. V., Kim, E., Namkoong, K., Lee, S.-Y., Moon, T. J., Gustafson, D. H. (2011). Empathic exchanges in online cancer support groups: Distinguishing message expression and reception effects. Health Communication, 26, 185197. Google Scholar, Crossref, Medline, ISI
Jenkins, H. (1992). Textual poachers: Television fans and participatory culture. London, England: Routledge. Google Scholar
Katz, E. (2006). Rediscovering Gabriel Tarde. Political Communication, 23, 263270. Google Scholar, Crossref, ISI
Lee, N. J., Shah, D. V., McLeod, J. M. (2013). Processes of political socialization: A communication mediation approach to youth civic engagement. Communication Research, 40, 669697. Google Scholar, SAGE Journals, ISI
Lerner, J. S., Tetlock, P. E. (1999). Accounting for the effects of accountability. Psychological Bulletin, 125, 255275. Google Scholar, Crossref, Medline, ISI
Leung, L. (2009). User-generated content on the Internet: An examination of gratifications, civic engagement and psychological empowerment. New Media & Society, 11, 13271347. Google Scholar, SAGE Journals, ISI
McLeod, J. M., Zubric, J., Keum, H., Deshpande, S., Cho, J., Stein, S., Heather, M. (2001). Reflecting and connecting: Testing a communication mediation model of civic participation. Paper presented to the Communication Theory and methodology Division, AEJMC Annual Meeting, August 2001, Washington D.C. Google Scholar
Muhlberger, P. (2005). Human agency and the revitalization of the public sphere. Political Communication, 22, 163178. Google Scholar, Crossref, ISI
Mutz, D. (2006). Hearing the other side: Deliberative versus participatory democracy. New York, NY: Cambridge University Press. Google Scholar, Crossref
Namkoong, K., Shah, D. V., Han, J. Y., Kim, S. C., Yoo, W., Fan, D., Gustafson, D. H. (2010). Expression and reception of treatment information in breast cancer support groups: How health self-efficacy moderates effects on emotional well-being. Patient Education and Counseling, 8, S41S47. Google Scholar, Crossref, ISI
Pennebaker, J. W. (1997). Writing about emotional experiences as a therapeutic process. Psychological Science, 8, 162166. Google Scholar, SAGE Journals, ISI
Pennebaker, J. W., Beall, S. K. (1986). Confronting a traumatic event: Towards an understanding of inhibition and disease. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 95, 274281. Google Scholar, Crossref, Medline, ISI
Pennebaker, J. W., Mayne, T. J., Francis, M. E. (1997). Linguistic predictors of adaptive bereavement. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 72, 863871. Google Scholar, Crossref, Medline, ISI
Pingree, R. J. (2007). How messages affect their senders: A more general model of message effects and implications for deliberation. Communication Theory, 17, 439461. Google Scholar, Crossref, ISI
Price, V., Nir, L., Cappella, J. N. (2006). Normative and informational influences in online political discussions. Communication Theory, 16, 4774. Google Scholar, Crossref, ISI
Quintelier, E., Vissers, S. (2008). The effect of Internet use on political participation: An analysis of survey results from 16-year-olds in Belgium. Social Science Computer Review, 26, 411427. Google Scholar, SAGE Journals, ISI
Rawls, J. (1993). Political liberalism. New York, NY: Columbia University Press. Google Scholar
Rojas, H., Puig-i-Abril, E. (2009). Mobilizers mobilized: Information, expression, mobilization and participation in the digital age. Journal of Computer-Mediated Communication, 14, 902927. Google Scholar, Crossref, ISI
Schudson, M. (1997). Why conversation is not the soul of democracy. Critical Studies in Media Communication, 14, 297309. Google Scholar, Crossref, ISI
Shah, D. V., Cho, J., Eveland, W. P., Kwak, N. (2005). Information and expression in a digital age modeling Internet effects on civic participation. Communication Research, 32, 531565. Google Scholar, SAGE Journals, ISI
Shah, D. V., Cho, J., Nah, S., Gotlieb, M. R., Hwang, H., Lee, N. J., McLeod, D. M. (2007). Campaign ads, online messaging, and participation: Extending the communication mediation model. Journal of Communication, 57, 676703. Google Scholar, Crossref, ISI
Smyth, J., True, N., Souto, J. (2001). Effects of writing about traumatic experiences: The necessity for narrative structuring. Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology, 20, 161172. Google Scholar, Crossref, ISI
Sotirovic, M., McLeod, J. (2001). Values, communication behavior, and political participation. Political Communication, 18, 273300. Google Scholar, Crossref, ISI
Tarde, G. (1969). Gabriel Tarde on communication and social influence: Selected papers (Vol. 334). Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press. (Original work published 1898) Google Scholar, Crossref
Valenzuela, S. (2013). Unpacking the use of social media for protest behavior the roles of information, opinion expression, and activism. American Behavioral Scientist, 57, 920942. Google Scholar, SAGE Journals, ISI
Wojcieszak, M. E., Mutz, D. C. (2009). Online groups and political discourse: Do online discussion spaces facilitate exposure to political disagreement? Journal of Communication, 59, 4056. Google Scholar, Crossref, ISI
Wyatt, R. O., Katz, E., Kim, J. (2000). Bridging the spheres: Political and personal conversation in public and private spaces. Journal of communication, 50, 7192. Google Scholar, Crossref, ISI
Young, I. M. (1996). Communication and the other: Beyond deliberative democracy. In Benhabib, S. (Ed.), Democracy and difference: Contesting the boundaries of the political. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 120136. Google Scholar

Author biography

Dhavan V. Shah (PhD, University of Minnesota, 1999) is the Louis A. & Mary E. Maier-Bascom Professor in the School of Journalism and Mass Communication at the University of Wisconsin–Madison, where he is Director of the Mass Communication Research Center (MCRC) and Scientific Director in the Center for Health Enhancement System Studies (CHESS). His research focuses on communication influence on social perceptions and judgments, civic and political engagement, and health support and behavior

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A sizable body of empirical evidence indicates political conversation—both face-to-face and online—drives participatory engagement. Digital, social, and mobile media provide new avenues and tools for political talk, with affordances that may be particularly conducive to expression effects—that is, the impact of message production on the sender. This essay contends that an emphasis on deliberative democracy has limited attention to the psychological implications of political expression and creative production via information technologies and digital media.

Bargh, J. A., Schul, Y. (1980). On the cognitive benefits of teaching. Journal of Educational Psychology, 72, 593604. Google Scholar, Crossref, ISI
Benhabib, S. (1996). Toward a deliberative model of democratic legitimacy. In Benhabib, S. (Ed.), Democracy and difference: Contesting the boundaries of the political. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 6794. Google Scholar
Bode, L., Vraga, E. K., Borah, P., Shah, D. V. (2014). A new space for political behavior: Political social networking and its democratic consequences. Journal of Computer-Mediated Communication, 19, 414429. Google Scholar, Crossref, ISI
Chadwick, A., Howard, P. N. (2009). Introduction: New directions in Internet politics research. In Chadwick, A., Howard, P. N. (Eds.), Routledge handbook of internet politics (pp. 112). New York, NY: Routledge. Google Scholar
Cho, J., Shah, D. V., McLeod, J. M., McLeod, D. M., Scholl, R. M., Gotlieb, M. R. (2009). Campaigns, reflection, and deliberation: Advancing an O-S-R-O-R model of communication effects. Communication Theory, 19, 6688. Google Scholar, Crossref, ISI
Dahlgren, P. (2005). The Internet, public spheres, and political communication: Dispersion and deliberation. Political Communication, 22, 147162. Google Scholar, Crossref, ISI
Delli Carpini, M. X., Cook, F. L., Jacobs, L. R. (2004). Public deliberation, discursive participation, and citizen engagement: A review of the empirical literature. Annual Review of Political Science, 7, 315344. Google Scholar, Crossref, ISI
Dewey, J. (1927). The public and its problems. In Boydston, J. A. (Ed.), The later works, 1925–1953 (Vol. 2). Carbondale: Southern Illinois University Press, 235372. (Original work published 1984). Google Scholar
Dewey, J. (1997). Experience and education. New York, NY: Simon & Schuster. (Original work published 1938) Google Scholar
Dylko, I., McCluskey, M. (2012). Media effects in an era of rapid technological transformation: A case of user-generated content and political participation. Communication Theory, 22, 250278. Google Scholar, Crossref, ISI
Ekström, M., Östman, J. (2015). Information, interaction, and creative production: The effects of three forms of Internet use on youth democratic engagement. Communication Research, 42, 796818. Google Scholar, SAGE Journals, ISI
Enslin, P., Pendlebury, S., Tjiattas, M. (2001). Deliberative democracy, diversity and the challenges of citizenship education. Journal of Philosophy of Education, 35, 115130. Google Scholar, Crossref, ISI
Eveland, W. P., Hayes, A. F., Shah, D. V., Kwak, N. (2005). Observations on estimation of communication effects on political knowledge and a test of intracommunication mediation. Political Communication, 22, 505509. Google Scholar, Crossref, ISI
Eveland, W. P., Shah, D. V., Kwak, N. (2003). Assessing causality in the cognitive mediation model: A panel study of motivations, information processing and learning during campaign 2000. Communication Research, 30, 359386. Google Scholar, SAGE Journals, ISI
Fishkin, J. (2009). When the people speak: Deliberative democracy and public consultation. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press. Google Scholar
Garlough, C. L. (2013). Desi Divas: Political activism in South Asian American cultural performances. Jackson: University Press of Mississippi. Google Scholar, Crossref
Gil de Zúñiga, H., Molyneux, L., Zheng, P. (2014). Social media, political expression, and political participation: Panel analysis of lagged and concurrent relationships. Journal of Communication, 64, 612634. Google Scholar, Crossref, ISI
Habermas, J. (2006). Political communication in media society: Does democracy still enjoy an epistemic dimension? The impact of normative theory on empirical research. Communication Theory, 16, 411426. Google Scholar, Crossref, ISI
Han, J. Y., Shah, D. V., Kim, E., Namkoong, K., Lee, S.-Y., Moon, T. J., Gustafson, D. H. (2011). Empathic exchanges in online cancer support groups: Distinguishing message expression and reception effects. Health Communication, 26, 185197. Google Scholar, Crossref, Medline, ISI
Jenkins, H. (1992). Textual poachers: Television fans and participatory culture. London, England: Routledge. Google Scholar
Katz, E. (2006). Rediscovering Gabriel Tarde. Political Communication, 23, 263270. Google Scholar, Crossref, ISI
Lee, N. J., Shah, D. V., McLeod, J. M. (2013). Processes of political socialization: A communication mediation approach to youth civic engagement. Communication Research, 40, 669697. Google Scholar, SAGE Journals, ISI
Lerner, J. S., Tetlock, P. E. (1999). Accounting for the effects of accountability. Psychological Bulletin, 125, 255275. Google Scholar, Crossref, Medline, ISI
Leung, L. (2009). User-generated content on the Internet: An examination of gratifications, civic engagement and psychological empowerment. New Media & Society, 11, 13271347. Google Scholar, SAGE Journals, ISI
McLeod, J. M., Zubric, J., Keum, H., Deshpande, S., Cho, J., Stein, S., Heather, M. (2001). Reflecting and connecting: Testing a communication mediation model of civic participation. Paper presented to the Communication Theory and methodology Division, AEJMC Annual Meeting, August 2001, Washington D.C. Google Scholar
Muhlberger, P. (2005). Human agency and the revitalization of the public sphere. Political Communication, 22, 163178. Google Scholar, Crossref, ISI
Mutz, D. (2006). Hearing the other side: Deliberative versus participatory democracy. New York, NY: Cambridge University Press. Google Scholar, Crossref
Namkoong, K., Shah, D. V., Han, J. Y., Kim, S. C., Yoo, W., Fan, D., Gustafson, D. H. (2010). Expression and reception of treatment information in breast cancer support groups: How health self-efficacy moderates effects on emotional well-being. Patient Education and Counseling, 8, S41S47. Google Scholar, Crossref, ISI
Pennebaker, J. W. (1997). Writing about emotional experiences as a therapeutic process. Psychological Science, 8, 162166. Google Scholar, SAGE Journals, ISI
Pennebaker, J. W., Beall, S. K. (1986). Confronting a traumatic event: Towards an understanding of inhibition and disease. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 95, 274281. Google Scholar, Crossref, Medline, ISI
Pennebaker, J. W., Mayne, T. J., Francis, M. E. (1997). Linguistic predictors of adaptive bereavement. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 72, 863871. Google Scholar, Crossref, Medline, ISI
Pingree, R. J. (2007). How messages affect their senders: A more general model of message effects and implications for deliberation. Communication Theory, 17, 439461. Google Scholar, Crossref, ISI
Price, V., Nir, L., Cappella, J. N. (2006). Normative and informational influences in online political discussions. Communication Theory, 16, 4774. Google Scholar, Crossref, ISI
Quintelier, E., Vissers, S. (2008). The effect of Internet use on political participation: An analysis of survey results from 16-year-olds in Belgium. Social Science Computer Review, 26, 411427. Google Scholar, SAGE Journals, ISI
Rawls, J. (1993). Political liberalism. New York, NY: Columbia University Press. Google Scholar
Rojas, H., Puig-i-Abril, E. (2009). Mobilizers mobilized: Information, expression, mobilization and participation in the digital age. Journal of Computer-Mediated Communication, 14, 902927. Google Scholar, Crossref, ISI
Schudson, M. (1997). Why conversation is not the soul of democracy. Critical Studies in Media Communication, 14, 297309. Google Scholar, Crossref, ISI
Shah, D. V., Cho, J., Eveland, W. P., Kwak, N. (2005). Information and expression in a digital age modeling Internet effects on civic participation. Communication Research, 32, 531565. Google Scholar, SAGE Journals, ISI
Shah, D. V., Cho, J., Nah, S., Gotlieb, M. R., Hwang, H., Lee, N. J., McLeod, D. M. (2007). Campaign ads, online messaging, and participation: Extending the communication mediation model. Journal of Communication, 57, 676703. Google Scholar, Crossref, ISI
Smyth, J., True, N., Souto, J. (2001). Effects of writing about traumatic experiences: The necessity for narrative structuring. Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology, 20, 161172. Google Scholar, Crossref, ISI
Sotirovic, M., McLeod, J. (2001). Values, communication behavior, and political participation. Political Communication, 18, 273300. Google Scholar, Crossref, ISI
Tarde, G. (1969). Gabriel Tarde on communication and social influence: Selected papers (Vol. 334). Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press. (Original work published 1898) Google Scholar, Crossref
Valenzuela, S. (2013). Unpacking the use of social media for protest behavior the roles of information, opinion expression, and activism. American Behavioral Scientist, 57, 920942. Google Scholar, SAGE Journals, ISI
Wojcieszak, M. E., Mutz, D. C. (2009). Online groups and political discourse: Do online discussion spaces facilitate exposure to political disagreement? Journal of Communication, 59, 4056. Google Scholar, Crossref, ISI
Wyatt, R. O., Katz, E., Kim, J. (2000). Bridging the spheres: Political and personal conversation in public and private spaces. Journal of communication, 50, 7192. Google Scholar, Crossref, ISI
Young, I. M. (1996). Communication and the other: Beyond deliberative democracy. In Benhabib, S. (Ed.), Democracy and difference: Contesting the boundaries of the political. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 120136. Google Scholar

Author biography

Dhavan V. Shah (PhD, University of Minnesota, 1999) is the Louis A. & Mary E. Maier-Bascom Professor in the School of Journalism and Mass Communication at the University of Wisconsin–Madison, where he is Director of the Mass Communication Research Center (MCRC) and Scientific Director in the Center for Health Enhancement System Studies (CHESS). His research focuses on communication influence on social perceptions and judgments, civic and political engagement, and health support and behavior