Abstract
Abstract
Myanmar is in the midst of a complex peace process following nearly 70 years of civil conflict that has left the country severely underdeveloped. Despite the presence of influential women's organisations that attend to everyday needs as well as larger political projects, women are not well represented in the peace process. This article uses qualitative data to examine the influence that women do have on the peace process, albeit informally. Findings show that although women are not making it into peace negotiations in Myanmar, nevertheless they are key players in peacebuilding because of their civil society activism, organised through ethnic women's organisations, which places them around the table, if not at the table. The paper concludes that women's activism does have an effect on peacebuilding and that a shift in perspective is required to recognise their contributions.
References
| AGIPP 2017, ‘Analysis of Myanmar's Second Union Peace Conference — 21st Century Panglong from a Gender Perspective’: https://www.agipp.org/sites/agipp.org/files/agipp_upc_analysis_paper.pdf, accessed 4 June 2018. Google Scholar | |
| Anderlini, S. 2007, Women Building Peace: What They Do, Why It Matters, Boulder: Lynne Rienner Publishers, Inc. Google Scholar | |
| Berry, M. 2015, ‘When “Bright Futures” Fade: Paradoxes of Women's Empowerment in Rwanda’ in Signs 41: 1: 1–27. Google Scholar | Crossref | |
| Burma Link 2016, ‘Statement of Civil Society Organizations on the Union Peace Convention to Be Held on 12th January 2016’: https://www.burmalink.org/statement-of-civil-society-organizations-on-the-union-peace-convention-to-be-held-on-12th-january-2016/, accessed 4 June 2018. Google Scholar | |
| Callahan, M. 2005, Making Enemies: War and State Building in Burma, Ithaca: Cornell University Press. Google Scholar | |
| Charmaz, K. 2006, Constructing Grounded Theory, Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. Google Scholar | |
| Cockburn, C. 2013, ‘War and Security, Women and Gender: An Overview of the Issues’ in Gender & Development 21: 3: 433–452. Google Scholar | Crossref | |
| Cohn, C. ed. 2013, Women and Wars, Malden: Polity Press. Google Scholar | |
| Collins, P.H. 2002, Black Feminist Thought, New York: Routledge. Google Scholar | Crossref | |
| Crenshaw, K. 1991, ‘Mapping the Margins: Intersectionality, Identity Politics, and Violence Against Women of Color’ in Stanford Law Review 43: 6: 1241–1299. Google Scholar | Crossref | |
| Emerson, R. , Fretz, R. & Shaw, L. 1995, Writing Ethnographic Fieldnotes, Chicago: University of Chicago Press. Google Scholar | Crossref | |
| Enloe, C. 2000, Maneuvers, Berkeley: University of California Press. Google Scholar | Crossref | |
| Erickson, J. & Faria, C. 2011, ‘“We Want Empowerment for Our Women”: Transnational Feminism, Neoliberal Citizenship, and the Gendering of Women's Political Subjectivity in Postconflict South Sudan’ in Signs 36: 3: 627–652. Google Scholar | Crossref | |
| Fadiman, A. 1997, The Spirit Catches You and You Fall Down, New York: Noonday Press. Google Scholar | |
| Ferguson, J. 2015, ‘Who's Counting?: Ethnicity, Belonging, and the National Census in Burma/Myanmar’ in Journal of the Humanities and Social Sciences of Southeast Asia 171: 1: 1–28. Google Scholar | |
| Fink, C. 2009, Living Silence in Burma, London: Zed Books. Google Scholar | |
| Gravers, M. ed. 2007, Exploring Ethnic Diversity in Burma, Copenhagen: Nordic Institute of Asian Studies. Google Scholar | |
| Harnois, C. 2015, ‘Race, Ethnicity, Sexuality, and Women's Political Consciousness of Gender’ in Social Psychology Quarterly 78: 4: 365–386. Google Scholar | SAGE Journals | |
| Harriden, J. 2012, The Authority of Influence: Women and Power in Burmese History, Copenhagen: Nordic Institute of Asian Studies Press. Google Scholar | |
| Hedstrom, J. 2014, Where Are the Women? Negotiations for Peace in Burma, Uppsala: Swedish Burma Committee Report. Google Scholar | |
| Hedstrom, J. 2016, ‘We Did Not Realize About the Gender Issues. So, We Thought It Was a Good Idea: Gender Roles in Burmese Oppositional Struggles’ in International Feminist Journal of Politics 18: 1: 61–79. Google Scholar | Crossref | |
| Holzer, E. 2015, The Concerned Women of Bududruman: Refugee Activists and Humanitarian Dilemmas, Ithaca: Cornell University Press. Google Scholar | Crossref | |
| Human Rights Documentation Unit 2008, Burma Human Rights Yearbook 2008: http://www.burmalibrary.org/docs08/HRYB2008.pdf, accessed 4 June 2018. Google Scholar | |
| Hunt, S. & Posa, C. 2001, ‘Women Waging Peace’ in Foreign Policy 124: 38–47. Google Scholar | Crossref | |
| Ikeya, C. 2011, Refiguring Women, Colonialism, and Modernity in Burma, Honolulu: University of Hawai'i Press. Google Scholar | Crossref | |
| Kamler, E. 2015, ‘Women of the Kachin Conflict: Trafficking and Militarized Femininity on the Burma-China Border’ in Journal of Human Trafficking 1: 3: 209–234. Google Scholar | Crossref | |
| Keenan, P. 2008, By Force of Arms: Armed Ethnic Groups in Burma, Chiang Mai: Burma Centre for Ethnic Studies. Google Scholar | |
| KWAT 2013, ‘Pushed to the Brink: Conflict and Human Trafficking on the Kachin–China Border’, Kachin Women's Association Thailand Report. Google Scholar | |
| Legal Aid Network and Kachin Women's Association Thailand 2016, ‘Justice Delayed, Justice Denied: Seeking Truth about Sexual Violence and War Crime Case in Burma’, Kachin Women's Association Thailand Report, Chiang Mai. Google Scholar | |
| Mazurana, D. , Raven-Roberts, A. & Parpart, J.L. 2005, Gender, Conflict, and Peacekeeping, Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield. Google Scholar | |
| Mi Mi Khaing 1984, The World of Burmese Women, London: Zed Books. Google Scholar | |
| Mohanty, C.T. 2003, Under Western Eyes: Feminist Scholarship and Colonial Discourses, Durham, NC: Duke University Press. Google Scholar | |
| Naples, N. 2009, ‘Teaching Intersectionality Intersectionally’ in International Feminist Journal of Politics 11: 4: 566–577. Google Scholar | Crossref | |
| Nordstrom, C. 1997, A Different Kind of War Story, Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press. Google Scholar | |
| Palaung Women's Organization 2011, ‘Voices for Change: Domestic Violence and Gender Discrimination in the Palaung Area’: http://www.burmalibrary.org/docs13/Voices_for_Change-PWO(en)-red.pdf, accessed 4 June 2018. Google Scholar | |
| Porter, E. 2007, Peacebuilding: Women in International Perspective, New York: Routledge. Google Scholar | Crossref | |
| Raven-Roberts, A. 2005, ‘Gender Mainstreaming in United Nations Peacekeeping Operations: Talking the Talk, Tripping over the Walk’ in Mazurana, D. , Raven-Roberts, A. & Parpart, J. eds, Gender, Conflict and Peacekeeping, Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield: 43–64. Google Scholar | |
| Ray, R. 1999, Fields of Protest: Women's Movements in India, Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press. Google Scholar | |
| Saw Tun Lin 2017, ‘Peace Process Survey Shows Increase Conflicts in Ethnic Areas after Peace Conference’ in Karen News, 10 February: www.karennews.org, accessed 22 February 2017. Google Scholar | |
| Shan Women Action Network 2002, ‘License to Rape: The Burmese Military Regime's Use of Sexual Violence in the Ongoing War in Shan State’: http://www.shanwomen.org/reports/36-license-to-rape, accessed 4 June 2018. Google Scholar | |
| South, A. ed. 2008, Ethnic Politics in Burma: States of Conflict, New York: Routledge. Google Scholar | Crossref | |
| Than, Tharaphi 2014, Women in Modern Burma, New York: Routledge. Google Scholar | |
| Tripp, A.M. 2015, Women and Power in Postconflict Africa, New York: Cambridge University Press. Google Scholar | Crossref | |
| UN Women 2015, ‘Statement of Senior Officials Workshop on UN Security Council Resolution 1325 on Women, Peace, and Security’: http://asiapacific.unwomen.org/en/news-and-events/stories/2015/04/outcome-statement-of-senior-officials-workshop-on-un-security-council-resolution-1325-on-women#sthash.aNNzKwSr.dpuf, accessed 9 May 2017. Google Scholar | |
| United Nations Security Council 2000, ‘Security Council Resolution 1325: On Women and Peace and Security’: www.refworld.org/docid/3b00f4672e.html, accessed 11 October 2017. Google Scholar | |
| Viterna, J. 2013, Women in War: The Micro-Processes of Mobilization in El Salvador, Oxford: Oxford University Press. Google Scholar | Crossref | |
| Viterna, J. & Fallon, K. 2008, ‘Democratization, Women's Movements, and Gender-Equitable States: A Framework for Comparison’ in American Sociological Review 73: 4: 668–689. Google Scholar | SAGE Journals | |
| Waylen, G. 2007, Engendering Transitions: Women's Mobilization, Institutions, and Gender Outcomes, Oxford: Oxford University Press. Google Scholar | Crossref | |
| WLB 2011, ‘The Founding and Development of the Women's League of Burma: A Herstory’: http://womenofburma.org/the-founding-and-development-of-the-womens-league-of-burma-a-herstory/, accessed 4 June 2018. Google Scholar | |
| WLB 2014, ‘Same Impunity, Same Patterns’: http://womenofburma.org/same-impunity-same-pattern-report-of-systematic-sexual-violence-in-burmas-ethnic-areas/, accessed 4 June 2018. Google Scholar | |
| Women's International League for Peace and Freedom 2015, ‘Country Profile: Myanmar’: http://www.peacewomen.org/profile/country-region-profile-myanmar, accessed 4 June 2018. Google Scholar |
