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Abstract
Universals of shamanism reflect innate brain processes and representational systems and fundamental aspects of consciousness. Shamanic universals involve psychophysiological dynamics of altered states of consciousness (ASCs) and visionary experiences, metaphoric representations produced through integration of innate representational modules, and rituals that produce psychophysiological healing responses. ASCs reflect natural brain processes involving systemic integrative conditions. Universal shamanic representations (e.g., animism, animal allies, and soul flight) use cross-modal integration of specialized innate modules and reflect fundamental aspects of the psychodynamics of self. These prelinguistic emotional, social, and mental processes use presentational symbolism that reflects fundamental structures of consciousness. Therapeutic aspects of shamanism involve the psychophysiological effects of ASCs, ritual and community evocation of neurotransmitter responses, and the functions of spirit concepts in representing and manipulating individual and group psychodynamics. The shamanic paradigm's psychobiological foundations explain the origins and cross-cultural distribution of shamanism, its modern manifestations, and the continued applicability of shamanic practices.
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