Suicide among Black Children: An Integrated Model of the Interpersonal-Psychological Theory of Suicide and Intersectionality Theory for Researchers and Clinicians
Abstract
Recently, research has reported that the rates of suicide among Black children between the ages of 5 to 12-years-old are increasing as they are now more likely to commit suicide than White children. Yet, there are very few, if any, frameworks being used by researchers to explain the risks of suicide among Black children. Suicide research has overwhelmingly been focused on White youth thus leaving a critical gap in suicide research. This conceptual paper provides an integrated framework using the Interpersonal-Psychological Theory of Suicide and Intersectionality theory, as a guide for researchers, clinicians, and practitioners to incorporate culturally appropriate techniques in their work as a way to prevent suicide among Black children. This framework highlights racial discrimination, mental health, socioeconomic status, and sexual/gender minority status to be the most preeminent, yet understudied factors leading to suicide risk among Black children in the United States.
Get full access to this article
View all access and purchase options for this article.
References
Abrutyn S., Mueller A. S. (2019). Toward a robust science of suicide: Epistemological, theoretical, and methodological considerations in advancing suicidology. Death Studies. https://doi.org/10.1080/07481187.2019.1660081
Amutah-Onukagha N., Mahadevan M., Opara I., Rodriguez M., Trusdell M., Kelly J. (2018). Project THANKS: Examining HIV/AIDS-related barriers and facilitators to care in African American women: A community perspective. AIDS Patient Care and STDs, 32(4), 119–128.
Assari S., Gibbons F., Simons R. (2018). Depression among Black Youth; Interaction of Class and Place. Brain Sciences, 8(6), 108.
Baker J. (2017). The manifestations of prejudice in everyday life: An examination of racial microaggressions, ethnophaulisms, and integrated threats as observed by white post secondary youth in St. John’s, Newfoundland and Labrador. Memorial University of Newfoundland, St. John’s Newfoundland, and Labrador.
Barksdale C. L., Azur M., Leaf P. J. (2010). Differences in mental health service sector utilization among African American and Caucasian youth entering systems of care programs. The Journal of Behavioral Health Services & Research, 37(3), 363–373.
Beck A. T., Brown G., Steer R. A. (1989). Prediction of eventual suicide in psychiatric inpatients by clinical ratings of hopelessness. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 57(2), 309.
Berger M., Sarnyai Z. (2015). “More than skin deep”: stress neurobiology and mental health consequences of racial discrimination. Stress, 18(1), 1–10.
Bostwick W. B., Meyer I., Aranda F., Russell S., Hughes T., Birkett M., Mustanski B. (2014). Mental health and suicidality among racially/ethnically diverse sexual minority youths. American Journal of Public Health, 104(6), 1129–1136.
Bowleg L. (2012). The problem with the phrase women and minorities: Intersectionality—an important theoretical framework for public health. American Journal of Public Health, 102(7), 1267–1273.
Brailovskaia J., Teismann T., Margraf J. (2018). Cyberbullying, positive mental health and suicide ideation/behavior. Psychiatry Research, 267, 240–242.
Bridge J. A., Horowitz L. M., Fontanella C. A., Sheftall A. H., Greenhouse J., Kelleher K. J., Campo J. V. (2018). Age-related racial disparity in suicide rates among US youths from 2001 through 2015. JAMA Pediatrics, 172(7), 697–699.
Bronfenbrenner U., Morris P. A. (2006). The bioecological model of human development. In Lerner R. M. (Ed.), Handbook of child development: Vol. 1. Theoretical models of human development (6th ed., pp. 793–828). Wiley.
Chambers B. D., Erausquin J. T. (2018). Race, sex, and discrimination in school settings: A multilevel analysis of associations with delinquency. Journal of School Health, 88(2), 159–166.
Clarke J. N., Mosleh D. (2015). Risk and the Black American child: Representations of children’s mental health issues in three popular African American magazines. Health, Risk & Society, 17(1), 1–14.
Cochran S. D., Mays V. M., Alegria M., Ortega A. N., Takeuchi D. (2007). Mental health and substance use disorders among Latino and Asian American lesbian, gay, and bisexual adults. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 75(5), 785–794.
Chu C., Buchman-Schmitt J. M., Stanley I. H., Hom M. A., Tucker R. P., Hagan C. R., Rogers M. L., Podlogar M. C., Chiurliza B., Ringer F. B., Michaels M. S., Patros C. H. G., Joiner T. E. Jr. (2017). The interpersonal theory of suicide: A systematic review and meta-analysis of a decade of cross-national research. Psychological Bulletin, 143(12), 1313–1345. https://doi.org/10.1037/bul0000123
Chu J., Khoury O., Ma J., Bahn F., Bongar B., Goldblum P. (2017). An empirical model and ethnic differences in cultural meanings via motives for suicide. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 73(10), 1343–1359. https://doi.org/10.1002/jclp.22425
Collins P. H. (2000). Black feminist thought: Knowledge, consciousness, and the politics of empowerment. Routledge.
Crenshaw K. (1991). Mapping the margins: Identity politics, intersectionality, and violence against women. Stanford Law Review, 43(6), 1241–1299.
Cullins L. M., Solages M. M., McKnight S. (2019). Depression in African American and Black Caribbean youth and the intersection of spirituality and religion: Clinical opportunities and considerations. Child and Adolescent Psychiatric Clinics of North America, 28(3), 473–482.
Curtin S. C., Heron M. (2019) Death rates due to suicide and homicide among persons aged 10–24: United States, 2000–2017. NCHS Data Brief, no 352. National Center for Health Statistics.
Davis G. Y., Stevenson H. C. (2006). Racial socialization experiences and symptoms of depression among Black youth. Journal of Child and Family Studies, 15(3), 293–307.
Dawson M. C. (1994). A black counterpublic? Economic earthquakes, racial agenda (s), and black politics. Public Culture, 7(1), 195–223.
Drapeau C. W., McIntosh J. L. (2018). U.S.A. suicide 2017: Official final data. American Association of Suicidology. Retrieved December 10, 2018, from https://www.suicidology.org
English D., Lambert S. F., Ialongo N. S. (2014). Longitudinal associations between experienced racial discrimination and depressive symptoms in African American adolescents. Developmental Psychology, 50(4), 1190–1196.
Farahmand F. K., Grant K. E., Polo A. J., Duffy S. N. (2011). School-based mental health and behavioral programs for low-income, urban youth: A systematic and meta-analytic review. Clinical Psychology: Science and Practice, 18(4), 372–390.
Gibbs J. J., Goldbach J. (2015). Religious conflict, sexual identity, and suicidal behaviors among LGBT young adults. Archives of Suicide Research, 19(4), 472–488. https://doi.org/10.1080/13811118.2015.1004476
Grossman A. H., D’Augelli A. R. (2007). Transgender youth and life-threatening behaviors. Suicide & Life-Threatening Behavior, 37(5), 527–537. https://doi.org/10.1521/suli.2007.37.5.527
Gomez J., Miranda R., Polanco L. (2011). Acculturative stress, perceived discrimination, and vulnerability to suicide attempts among emerging adults. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 40(11), 1465–1476. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10964-011-9688-9
Gunn J. F. III, Goldstein S. E., Eccles J. S. (in preparation). A longitudinal investigation of suicidal thoughts in African American and European American young adults.
Hastings J. F., Snowden L. R. (2019). African Americans and Caribbean Blacks: Perceived neighborhood disadvantage and depression. Journal of Community Psychology, 47(2), 227–237.
Henderson D. X., Jones J., McLeod K., Jackson K., Lunsford A., Metzger I. (2020). A phenomenological study of racial harassment in school and emotional effects among the retrospective accounts of older black adolescents. The Urban Review, 1–24. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11256-020-00551-5
Henderson D. X., Walker L., Barnes R. R., Lunsford A., Edwards C., Clark C. (2019). A framework for race-related trauma in the public education system and implications on health for black youth. Journal of School Health, 89(11), 926–933. https://doi.org/10.1111/josh.12832
Hjelmeland H., Knizek B. L. (2020). The emperor’s new clothes? A critical look at the interpersonal theory of suicide. Death Studies, 44(3), 168–178. https://doi.org/1080/07481187.2018.1527796
Hope E. C., Hoggard L. S., Thomas A. (2015). Emerging into adulthood in the face of racial discrimination: Physiological, psychological, and sociopolitical consequences for African American youth. Translational Issues in Psychological Science, 1(4), 342–351.
Huebner D. M., Kegeles S. M., Rebchook G. M., Peterson J. L., Neilands T. B., Johnson W. D., Eke A. N. (2014). Social oppression, psychological vulnerability, and unprotected intercourse among young Black men who have sex with men. Health Psychology, 33(12), 1568.
Joiner T. E. Jr. (2005). Why people die by suicide. Harvard University Press.
Kann L., McManus T., Harris W. A., Shanklin S. L., Flint K. H., Queen B., Lowry R., Chyen D., Whittle L., Thornton J., Lim C., Bradford D., Yamakawa Y., Leon M., Brener N., Ethier K. A. (2018). Youth risk behavior surveillance-United States, 2017. Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report Surveillance Summaries, 67(8), 1–114.
Keels M., Durkee M., Hope E. (2017). The psychological and academic costs of school-based racial and ethnic microaggressions. American Educational Research Journal, 54(6), 1316–1344.
King M., Semlyen J., Tai S. S., Killaspy H., Osborn D., Popelyuk D., Nazareth I. (2008). A systematic review of mental disorder, suicide, and deliberate self harm in lesbian, gay and bisexual people. BMC Psychiatry, 8(1), 70. https://doi.org/10.1186/1471-244X-8-70
Lardier D. T. Jr., Bermea A. M., Pinto S. A., Garcia-Reid P., Reid R. J. (2017). The relationship between sexual minority status and suicidal ideations among urban Hispanic adolescents. Journal of LGBT Issues in Counseling, 11(3), 174–189.
Lambert S. F., Herman K. C., Bynum M. S., Ialongo N. S. (2009). Perceptions of racism and depressive symptoms in African American adolescents: The role of perceived academic and social control. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 38(4), 519–531.
Lanier Y., Sommers M. S., Fletcher J., Sutton M. Y., Roberts D. D. (2017). Examining racial discrimination frequency, racial discrimination stress, and psychological well-being among Black early adolescents. Journal of Black Psychology, 43(3), 219–229.
Lê Cook B., Barry C. L., Busch S. H. (2013). Racial/ethnic disparity trends in children’s mental health care access and expenditures from 2002 to 2007. Health Services Research, 48(1), 129–149. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1475-6773.2012.01439.x
Lindsey M. A., Chambers K., Pohle C., Beall P., Lucksted A. (2013). Understanding the behavioral determinants of mental health service use by urban, under-resourced black youth: Adolescent and caregiver perspectives. Journal of Child and Family Studies, 22(1), 107–121.
Lindsey M. A., Sheftall A. H., Xiao Y., Joe S. (2019). Trends of suicidal behaviors among high school students in the United States: 1991-2017. Pediatrics, 144(5), e20191187. https://doi.org/10.1542/peds.2019-1187
Ma J., Batterham P. J., Calear A. L., Han J. (2016). A systematic review of the predictions of the Interpersonal-Psychological Theory of Suicidal Behavior. Clinical Psychology Review, 46, 34–45. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cpr.2016.04.008
Mallett C. A. (2017). The school-to-prison pipeline: Disproportionate impact on vulnerable children and adolescents. Education and Urban Society, 49(6), 563–592.
McGuire K. M., Cisneros J., McGuire T. D. (2017). Intersections at a (heteronormative) crossroad: Gender and sexuality among Black students’ spiritual-and-religious narratives. Journal of College Student Development, 58(2), 175–197.
McLaughlin K. A., Hilt L. M., Nolen-Hoeksema S. (2007). Racial/ethnic differences in internalizing and externalizing symptoms in adolescents. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 35(5), 801–816.
Metzger I. W., Cooper S. M., Ritchwood T. D., Onyeuku C., Griffin C. B. (2017). Profiles of African American college students’ alcohol use and sexual behaviors: Associations with stress, racial discrimination, and social support. The Journal of Sex Research, 54(3), 374–385.
Metzger I. W., Salami T., Carter S., Halliday-Boykins C., Anderson R. E., Jernigan M. M., Ritchwood T. (2018). African American emerging adults’ experiences with racial discrimination and drinking habits: The moderating roles of perceived stress. Cultural Diversity and Ethnic Minority Psychology, 24(4), 489–497.
Merkwae A. (2015). Schooling the police: Race, disability, and the conduct of school resource officers. Michigan Journal of Race & Law, 21, 147–152.
Mereish E. H., O’Cleirigh C., Bradford J. B. (2013). Interrelationships between LGBT-based victimization, suicide, and substance use problems in a diverse sample of sexual and gender minorities. Psychology, Health & Medicine 19(1), 1–13. https://doi.org/10.1080/13548506.2013.780129.
Meyer I. H., Dietrich J., Schwartz S. (2008). Lifetime prevalence of mental disorders and suicide attempts in diverse lesbian, gay, and bisexual populations. American Journal of Public Health, 98(6), 1004–1006.
Miller B., Taylor J. (2012). Racial and socioeconomic status differences in depressive symptoms among black and white youth: An examination of the mediating effects of family structure, stress and support. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 41(4), 426–437.
Murry V. M., Heflinger C. A., Suiter S. V., Brody G. H. (2011). Examining perceptions about mental health care and help-seeking among rural African American families of adolescents. Journal of Youth Adolescence, 40(9), 1118–1131.
Mustanski B., Liu R. T. (2013). A longitudinal study of predictors of suicide attempts among lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender youth. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 42(3), 437–448.
Opara I., Lardier D. T. Jr., Reid R. J., Garcia-Reid P. (2019). “It all starts with the parents”: A qualitative study on protective factors for drug-use prevention among Black and Hispanic girls. Affilia, 34(2), 199–218.
Opara I., Rodas E. I. R., Lardier D. T., Garcia-Reid P., Reid R. J. (2020). Validation of the Abbreviated Socio-Political Control Scale for Youth (SPCS-Y) among urban girls of color. Child and Adolescent Social Work Journal, 37(1), 83–95.
Phillips M. R. (2010). Rethinking the role of mental illness in suicide. American Journal of Psychiatry, 167(7), 731–733. https://doi.org/10.1176/appi.ajp.2010.10040589
Pinderhughes H., Davis R., Williams M. (2015). Adverse community experiences and resilience: A framework for addressing and preventing community trauma. Prevention Institute.
Polanco-Roman L., Anglin D. M., Miranda R., Jeglic E. L. (2019). Racial/ethnic discrimination and suicidal ideation in emerging adults: The role of traumatic stress and depressive symptoms varies by gender not race/ethnicity. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 48(10), 2023–2037.
Respress B. N., Amutah-Onukagha N. N., Opara I. (2018). The effects of school-based discrimination on adolescents of color sexual health outcomes: A social determinants approach. Social Work in Public Health, 33(1), 1–16.
Seaton E. K., Caldwell C. H., Sellers R. M. (2010). An Intersectional Approach for Understanding Perceived Discrimination and Psychological Well-Being Among African American and Caribbean Black Youth. Developmental Psychology, 46(5), 1372–1379.
Settler N. M., Katz L. F. (2017). Minority stress, emotion regulation, and the parenting of sexual minority youth. Journal of GLBT Family Studies, 13(4), 380–400.
Standley C. J. (2020). Expanding our paradigms: Intersectional and socioecological approaches to suicide prevention. Death Studies, 1–9. Advance online publication. https://doi.org/10.1080/07481187.2020.1725934
Stone D. M., Luo F., Ouyang L., Lippy C., Hertz M. F., Crosby A. E. (2014). Sexual orientation and suicide ideation, plans, attempts, and medically serious attempts: Evidence from local youth risk behavior surveys, 2001–2009. American Journal of Public Health, 104(2), 262–271. https://doi.org/10.2105/AJPH.2013.301383
Sutter M., Perrin P. B. (2016). Discrimination, mental health, and suicidal ideation among LGBTQ people of color. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 63(1), 98–105. https://doi.org/10.1037/cou0000126
The Trevor Project. (2020, February 13). The Trevor Project research brief: Black LGBTQ youth mental health. The Trevor Project. https://www.thetrevorproject.org/2020/02/13/research-brief-black-lgbtq-youth-mental-health/
Switzer R. (2019). Suicide prevention and intervention. Life-Threatening Behavior, 48, 6.
U.S. Census. (2018). Income and poverty report 2017. https://www.census.gov/content/dam/Census/library/publications/2018/demo/p60-263.pdf
Van Orden K. A., Witte T. K., Cukrowicz K. C., Braithwaite S., Selby E. A., Joiner T. E. Jr. (2010). The interpersonal theory of suicide. Psychological Review, 117(2), 575–600. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0018697
Biographies
Ijeoma Opara is an assistant professor in the School of Welfare at Stony Brook University and Visiting Faculty in the Center for Interdisciplinary Research on AIDS at the Yale School of Public Health. Dr Opara’s research interests focuses on Black girls, youth empowerment, minority youth substance use and HIV/STI prevention, and Black families.
Maame Araba Assan currently works at the Public Health Management Corporation, a public health non-profit in Philadelphia, focusing on research and evaluation projects related to tobacco control and prevention, asthma, and health equity and healthy living. Her current research interests include HIV/AIDS, infant mortality, and mental illness in communities of color.
Kimberly Pierre received her Master of Public Health degree from Rutgers University with a concentration in Urban Public Health. Kimberly is a sexual risk avoidance specialist. Her areas of research interests include: minority health disparities, women’s health, sexual and reproductive health, and maternal and child health.
John F. Gunn III is a postdoctoral associate at Rutgers University (Newark, NJ) at the NJ Center on Gun Violence Research. Dr Gunn’s research interests mainly focus on risk and protective factors for suicide across developmental periods, testing theoretical frameworks for suicide, and the impact of media on suicide.
Isha Metzger is an assistant professor of Clinical Psychology at the University of Georgia and Visiting Research Fellow at Yale University. Dr Metzger is also a Licensed Clinical Psychologist and currently directs The EMPOWER (Engaging Minorities in Prevention, Outreach, Workshops, Evaluation, & Research) Lab, which focuses on disseminating research on preventing risk behaviors and detrimental outcomes among ethnic minority youth.
Jahi Hamilton is pursuing a bachelor’s degree in Psychology at the University of Georgia. Jahi studies the impact sexual orientation and identity has on mental health outcomes such as depression and suicidality.
Eileen Arugu is a social worker with over 5 years of experience working for agencies focused on improving the educational outcomes for urban youth. Eileen earned her MSW from Columbia University School of Social Work with a concentration in mental health. She is passionate about providing quality educational resources for her clients in an effort to close the achievement gap. Presently, Eileen works directly with transitional youth who are involved in the criminal justice system.
Cite article
Cite article
Cite article
OR
Download to reference manager
If you have citation software installed, you can download article citation data to the citation manager of your choice
Information, rights and permissions
Information
Published In
Article first published online: June 15, 2020
Issue published: September 2020
Keywords
PubMed: 34305168
Authors
Metrics and citations
Metrics
Article usage*
Total views and downloads: 13977
*Article usage tracking started in December 2016
Altmetric
See the impact this article is making through the number of times it’s been read, and the Altmetric Score.
Learn more about the Altmetric Scores
Articles citing this one
Receive email alerts when this article is cited
Web of Science: 69 view articles Opens in new tab
Crossref: 87
- Suicide Prevention Research from Individual to Social Approach
- Ethnic Identity, Thwarted Belongingness, and Perceived Burdensomeness Among Latinx and Black Adolescents in the United States
- Suicide and Substance Use among African American Adolescents
- Educational cultural visionaries: how BlackQueer adults mentor, embrace, and love on BlackQueer youth
- Development and Validation of the Counselor Beliefs About Cultural Impact on Suicidality Scale
- Opportunities to Address Health Disparities in Suicidality for Sexual and Gender Minority Youth in Public Systems
- 20 years of studies of risk and intersectionality: a bibliometric overview
- Factors Associated with Suicidal Behavior in Adolescents: An Umbrella Review Using the Socio-Ecological Model
- The Interpersonal Theory of Suicide: State of the Science
- Profiles of Risk for Self-injurious Thoughts and Behaviors Among System-Impacted Girls of Color
- View More
Figures and tables
Figures & Media
Tables
View Options
Access options
If you have access to journal content via a personal subscription, university, library, employer or society, select from the options below:
I am signed in as:
View my profileSign out
I can access personal subscriptions, purchases, paired institutional access and free tools such as favourite journals, email alerts and saved searches.
loading institutional access options
Alternatively, view purchase options below:
Purchase 24 hour online access to view and download content.
Access journal content via a DeepDyve subscription or find out more about this option.
