![[PDF]](/pb-assets/Icons/adobe-pdf-icon-1498649896243.png){kind=icon}
Abstract
The nature of the experiences induced by shamans has long been a topic of considerable controversy. The experiences occurring during one of the major shamanic techniques, the shamanic journey, have been described in terms of various psychopathologies or as identical to the transcendent experiences of Buddhism and yoga. Despite such claims, careful analysis reveals that shamanic journey experiences are distinct on several phenomenological dimensions. This article uses developmental analyses to assess whether shamanic experiences represent experiences at similar or different developmental stages as yogic and Buddhist experiences, and concludes that although there is some overlap, there are also significant differences. The article then turns to current theories about the evolution of human consciousness. Different views of evolution are summarized, the possible evolution of transpersonal techniques and experiences is outlined, and the possible place of shamanic practitioners in this scheme is suggested.
|
Andrews, L.
(1987). To thy own self be true.New York: Anchor/Doubleday. Google Scholar | |
|
Brown, D.
, & Engler, J. (1986). The stages of mindfulness meditation: A validation study. In K. Wilber , J. Engler , & D. Brown (Eds.), Transformations of consciousness: Conventional and contemplative perspectives on development (pp. 191-218). Boston: New Science Library/Shambhala. Google Scholar | |
|
Buddhagosa
. (1975). The path of purity (P. M. Tin, Trans.). London: Pali Text Society. (Original work published 1923) Google Scholar | |
|
Campbell, J.
(1976). The masks of God (4 vols.). New York: Penguin. Google Scholar | |
|
Doore, G.
(Ed.). (1988). Shaman’s path. Boston: Shambhala. Google Scholar | |
|
Durand, G.
(1987). The imaginal. In M. Eliade (Ed.), The encyclopedia of religion (Vol. 7, pp. 109-114). New York: Macmillan. Google Scholar | |
|
Eliade, M.
(1964). Shamanism: Archaic techniques of ecstasy. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. Google Scholar | |
|
Eliade, M
(1969). Yoga: Immortality and freedom. (2nd ed.). Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. Google Scholar | |
|
Elkin, A.
(1977). Aboriginal men of high degree. New York: St. Martin’s. Google Scholar | |
|
Feuerstein, G.
(1989). Yoga: The technology of ecstasy. Los Angeles: J. P. Tarcher. Google Scholar | |
|
Feuerstein, G.
(1991). Holy madness. New York: Paragon. Google Scholar | |
|
Feuerstein, G.
(1998). The Shambhala guide to Yoga. Boston: Shambhala. Google Scholar | |
|
Fox, W
(1990). Transpersonal ecology. Boston: Shambhala. Google Scholar | |
|
Free John.
(1982). Nivanasara. Clearlake, CA: Dawn Horse Press. Google Scholar | |
|
Free John.
(1985). The dawn horse testament. San Rafael, CA: Dawn Horse Press. Google Scholar | |
|
Free John.
(1988). The basket of tolerance. Clearlake, CA: Dawn Horse Press. Google Scholar | |
|
Gagan, J.
(1998). Journeying: Where shamanism and psychology meet. Santa Fe, NM: Rio Chama. Google Scholar | |
|
Globus, G.
(1993). Different views from different states. In R. Walsh & F. Vaughan (Eds.), Paths beyond ego: The transpersonal vision (pp. 182-183). New York: G. P. Putnam. Google Scholar | |
|
Goldstein, J.
(1983). The experience of insight. Boston: Shambhala. Google Scholar | |
|
Goleman, D.
(1988). The meditative mind. Los Angeles: J. P. Tarcher. Google Scholar | |
|
Grinspoon, L.
, & Bakalar, J. (1986). Can drugs be used to enhance the psychotherapeutic process? American Journal of Psychotherapy, 40, 393-404. Google Scholar | Crossref | Medline | |
|
Grof, S.
(1998). The cosmic game. Albany, NY: State University of New York Press. Google Scholar | |
|
Harner, M.
(Ed.). (1973). Hallucinogens and shamanism. New York: Oxford University Press. Google Scholar | |
|
Harner, M.
(1982). The way of the shaman. New York: Bantam. Google Scholar | |
|
Harner, M.
(1985). Comments. Current anthropology, 26, 452. Google Scholar | |
|
Harner, M.
(1990). Commentary. ReVision, 13, 101-102. Google Scholar | |
|
Harner, S.
, & Tyron, W. (1996). Psychological and immunological responses to shamanic journeying with drumming. Shaman, 4(1/2), 89-97. Google Scholar | |
|
Hultkrantz, A.
(1973). A definition of shamanism. Temenos, 9, 25-37. Google Scholar | |
|
Hultkrantz, A.
(1978). Ecological and phenomenological aspects of shamanism. In V. Dioszegi & M. Hoppal (Eds.), Shamanism in Siberia (pp. 27-58). Budapest, Romania: Akadamiai Kiado. Google Scholar | |
|
James, W.
(1899). Talks to teachers on psychology and to students on some of life’s ideals. New York: Dover. Google Scholar | Crossref | |
|
James, W.
(1961). Psychology: Briefer course. New York: Harper Touchstone. Google Scholar | |
|
Joy, M.
(1987). Images and imagination. In M. Eliade (Ed.), The encyclopedia of religion (Vol. 7, pp. 107-109). New York: Macmillan. Google Scholar | |
|
Jung, C.
(1969). The collected works of C. G. Jung: Four archetypes (Vol. 9, Part I). Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. Google Scholar | |
|
Kakar, S.
(1982). Shamans, mystics and doctors: A psychological inquiry into India and its healing traditions. New York: Knopf. Google Scholar | |
|
Kalweit, H.
(1988). Dreamtime and inner space. Boston: Shambhala. Google Scholar | |
|
Kapleau, P.
(1980). The three pillars of Zen. Garden City, NY: Anchor/Doubleday. Google Scholar | |
|
Kornfield, J.
(1993). A path with heart. New York: Bantam. Google Scholar | |
|
LaBerge, S.
(1985). Lucid dreaming. Los Angeles: J. P. Tarcher. Google Scholar | |
|
LaBerge, S.
(1993). Learning lucid dreaming. In R. Walsh & F. Vaughan (Eds.), Paths beyond ego: The transpersonal vision (pp. 78-80). New York: J. P. Tarcher/Putnam. Google Scholar | |
|
McKenna, D.
, Callaway, J. ,& Grob, C. (1998). The scientific investigation of ayahuasca: A review of past and current research. Hefter Review, 1, 65-77. Google Scholar | |
|
Murphy, M.
(1992). The future of the body: Explorations into the further evolution of human nature. New York: J. P. Tarcher/Putnam. Google Scholar | |
|
Noll, R.
(1983). Shamanism and schizophrenia: A state specific approach to the “schizophrenia metaphor” of shamanic states. American Ethnologist, 10, 443-459. Google Scholar | Crossref | |
|
Peters, L.
(1990). Mystical experience in Tamang shamanism. ReVision, 13, 71-85. Google Scholar | |
|
Peters, L.
, & Price-Williams, D. (1983). A phenomenological view of trance. Transcultural Psychiatric Research Review, 20, 5-39. Google Scholar | SAGE Journals | |
|
Powers, J.
(1995). Introduction to Tibetan Buddhism. Ithaca, NY: Snow Lion. Google Scholar | |
|
Rasmussen, K.
(1927). Across Arctic America. New York: G. P. Putnam. Google Scholar | |
|
Ring, K.
(1984). Heading toward omega: In search of the meaning of the near-death experience. New York: William Morrow. Google Scholar | |
|
Ring, K.
(1993). The near-death experience. In R. Walsh & F. Vaughan (Eds.), Paths beyond ego: The transpersonal vision (pp. 195-202). New York: J. P. Tarcher/Putnam. Google Scholar | |
|
Rothberg, D.
(1986). Philosophical foundations of transpersonal psychology: An introduction to some basic issues. Journal of Transpersonal Psychology, 18, 1-34. Google Scholar | |
|
Rothberg, D.
, & Kelly, S. (Eds.). (1998). Ken Wilber in dialogue. Wheaton, IL: Quest. Google Scholar | |
|
Schumacher, E.
(1977). A guide for the perplexed. New York: Harper & Row. Google Scholar | |
| Shearer, P. (Trans.). (1989). Effortless being: The Yoga sutras of Patanjali. London: Wildwood House. Google Scholar | |
|
Smith, C. M.
(1997). Jung and shamanism in dialogue. Mahwah, NJ: Paulist Press. Google Scholar | |
|
Smith, H.
(1964). Do drugs have religious import? Journal of Philosophy, LXI, 517-530. Google Scholar | Crossref | |
|
Smith, H.
(1976). Forgotten truth: The primordial tradition. New York: Harper & Row. Google Scholar | |
|
Stace, W.
(1987). Mysticism and philosophy. Los Angeles: J. P. Tarcher. Google Scholar | |
|
Stafford, P.
(1983). Psychedelics encyclopedia (Rev. ed.). Los Angeles: J. P. Tarcher. Google Scholar | |
|
Staniford, P.
(1982). Ken Wilber’s transpersonal view of human evolution: A review of Up from Eden. Phoenix Journal of Transpersonal Anthropology, 6, 163-166. Google Scholar | |
|
Tart, C.
(1983). States of consciousness. El Cerrito, CA: Psychological Processes. Google Scholar | |
|
Tart, C.
(Ed.). (1992). Transpersonal psychologies (3rd ed.). New York: HarperCollins. Google Scholar | |
|
Underhill, E.
(1974). Mysticism. New York: New American Library. Google Scholar | |
|
Walsh, R.
(1982). Psychedelics and psychological well-being. Journal of Humanistic Psychology, 22, 22-32. Google Scholar | SAGE Journals | |
|
Walsh, R.
(1989a). Can Western philosophers understand Asian philosophies: The challenge and opportunity of states of consciousness research. Crosscurrents, XXXIX, 281-299. Google Scholar | |
|
Walsh, R.
(1989b). The shamanic journey: Experiences, origins, and analogues. ReVision, 12(2), 25-32. Google Scholar | |
|
Walsh, R.
(1989c). Shamanism and early human technology. ReVision, 12(1), 34-40. Google Scholar | |
|
Walsh, R.
(1989d). What is a shaman? Definition, origin and distribution. Journal of Transpersonal Psychology, 21, 1-11. Google Scholar | |
|
Walsh, R.
(1990). The spirit of shamanism. Los Angeles: J. P. Tarcher. Google Scholar | |
|
Walsh, R.
(1994). The making of a shaman: Calling, training and culmination. Journal of Humanistic Psychology, 34(3), 7-30. Google Scholar | SAGE Journals | |
|
Walsh, R.
(1999). Essential spirituality: The seven central practices to awaken heart and mind. New York: John Wiley. Google Scholar | |
|
Walsh, R.
, & Vaughan, F. (1992). Lucid dreaming. Journal of Transpersonal Psychology, 24, 193-200. Google Scholar | |
|
Walsh, R.
, & Vaughan, F. (Eds.). (1993). Paths beyond ego: The transpersonal vision. New York: J. P. Tarcher/Putnam. Google Scholar | |
|
Watkins, M.
(1976). Waking dreams. New York: Harper Colophon. Google Scholar | |
|
Wilber, K.
(1977). The spectrum of consciousness. Wheaton, IL: Quest. Google Scholar | |
|
Wilber, K.
(1980). The Atman project. Wheaton, IL: Quest. Google Scholar | |
|
Wilber, K.
(1981). Up from Eden: A transpersonal view of human evolution. New York: Doubleday. Google Scholar | |
|
Wilber, K.
(1982). Odyssey: A personal inquiry into humanistic and transpersonal psychology. Journal of Humanistic Psychology, 22(1), 57-90. Google Scholar | SAGE Journals | ISI | |
|
Wilber, K.
(1983a). Eye to eye: The quest for the new paradigm.Garden City, NJ: Anchor/Doubleday. Google Scholar | |
|
Wilber, K.
(1983b). A sociable god. New York: McGraw-Hill. Google Scholar | |
|
Wilber, K.
(1995). Sex, ecology, spirituality. Boston: Shambhala. Google Scholar | |
|
Wilber, K.
(1996). A brief history of everything. Boston: Shambhala Google Scholar | |
|
Wilber, K.
(1997). The eye of spirit. Boston: Shambhala. Google Scholar | |
|
Wilber, K.
(1999). One taste: The journals of Ken Wilber. Boston: Shambhala. Google Scholar | |
|
Wilber, K.
, Engler, J. , & Brown, D. (Eds.). (1986). Transformations of consciousness: Conventional and contemplative perspectives on development. Boston: New Science Library/Shambhala. Google Scholar | |
|
Winkelman, M.
(1993). The evolution of consciousness? Transpersonal theories in light of cultural relativism. Anthropology of Consciousness, 4(3), 3-9. Google Scholar | Crossref |
