![[PDF]](/pb-assets/Icons/adobe-pdf-icon-1498649896243.png){kind=icon}
Abstract
Existing literature shows promising effects of physical activity on children’s cognitive outcomes. This study assessed via a randomized, controlled design whether additional curricular physical activity during the school day resulted in gains for children’s fluid intelligence and standardized achievement outcomes. Participants were children (N = 460) from four urban schools in the Southeast United States. Schools were randomly assigned to treatment and control conditions. Treatment schools received additional physical activity breaks throughout the school day while control schools maintained a typical schedule without curricular activity breaks. Results from the one-year study show positive effects for children’s mathematics and reading achievement but no differences across treatment and control groups for children’s fluid intelligence scores. Implications for school psychologists in promoting physical activity breaks on a systems-wide level are discussed.
References
| Beets, M. W., Bornstein, D., Beighle, A., Cardinal, B. J., Morgan, C. F. (2010) Pedometer-measured physical activity patterns of youth: A 13-country review. American Journal of Preventive Medicine 38(2): 208–216. doi: 10.1016/j.amepre.2009.09.045. Google Scholar | Crossref | Medline | ISI | |
| Beets, M. W., Patton, M. M., Edwards, S. (2005) The accuracy of pedometer steps and time during walking in children. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise 37: 513–520. doi: 10.1249/01.MSS.0000155395.49960.31. Google Scholar | Crossref | Medline | ISI | |
| Beighle, A., Erwin, H. E., Morgan, C. F., Alderman, B. (2012) Children’s in-school and out-of-school physical activity during two seasons. Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport 83: 10–107. doi: 10.5641/027013612X13330442605458. Google Scholar | Crossref | ISI | |
| Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (2010) The association between school based physical activity, including physical education, and academic performance, Atlanta, GA: US Department of Health and Human Services. Google Scholar | |
| Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2012a). Youth risk behavior surveillance—United States, 2011. Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report, 61(4). Retrieved from http://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/pdf/ss/ss6104.pdf. Google Scholar | |
| Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2012b). Progress on childhood obesity. Retrieved from http://m.cdc.gov/en/VitalSigns/progress-on-childhood-obesity. Google Scholar | |
| Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2014, February). Childhood obesity facts. Retrieved from http://www.cdc.gov/healthyyouth/obesity/facts.htm. Google Scholar | |
| Davis, M. M., Gance-Cleveland, B., Hassink, S., Johnson, R., Paradis, G., Resnicow, K. (2007) Recommendations for prevention of childhood obesity. Pediatrics 120: S229–S253. doi: 10.1542/peds.2007-2329E. Google Scholar | Crossref | ISI | |
| Dessing, D., Pierik, F. H., Sterkenburg, R. P., van Dommelen, P., Maas, J., de Vries, S. I. (2013) Schoolyard physical activity of 6-11 year old children assessed by GPS and accelerometry. International Journal of Behavioral Nutrition and Physical Activity 10: 97–106. doi: 10.1186/1479-5868-10-97. Google Scholar | Crossref | Medline | ISI | |
| Fedewa, A. L., Ahn, S. (2011) The effects of physical activity and physical fitness on children’s cognitive outcomes: A meta-analysis. Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport 82(3): 521–535. PMid:21957711. doi: 10.1080/02701367.2011.10599785. Google Scholar | Crossref | Medline | ISI | |
| Fedewa, A. L., Candelaria, A., Erwin, H. E., Clark, T. P. (2013) Incorporating physical activity into schools using a 3-tiered approach. Journal of School Health 83(4): 290–297. doi: 10.1111/josh.12029. Google Scholar | Crossref | Medline | ISI | |
| Floriani, V., Kennedy, C. (2008) Promotion of physical activity in children. Current Opinion in Pediatrics 20: 90–95. doi: 10.1097/MOP.0b013e3282f3d9f9. Google Scholar | Crossref | Medline | ISI | |
| Hallal, P. C., Andersen, L. B., Bull, F. C., Guthold, R., Haskell, W., Ekelund, U. (2012) Global physical activity levels: Surveillance progress, pitfalls, and prospects. Lancet 380: 247–257. doi: 10.1016/S0140-6736(12)60646-1. Google Scholar | Crossref | Medline | ISI | |
| Harris, T. J., Owen, C. G., Victor, C. R., Adams, R., Ekelund, U., Cook, D. G. (2009) A comparison of questionnaire, accelerometer, and pedometer: Measures in older people. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise 41: 1392–1402. doi: 10.1249/MSS.0b013e31819b3533. Google Scholar | Crossref | Medline | ISI | |
| Hillman, C. H., Erickson, K. I., Kramer, A. F. (2008) Be smart, exercise your heart: Exercise effects on brain and cognition. Nature Reviews Neuroscience 9(1): 58–65. doi: 10.1038/nrn2298. Google Scholar | Crossref | Medline | ISI | |
| Hillman, C. H., Kamijo, K., Scudder, M. (2011) A review of chronic and acute physical activity participation on neuroelectric measures of brain health and cognition during childhood. Preventative Medicine 52: S21–S28. doi: 10.1016/j.ypmed.2011.01.024. Google Scholar | Crossref | ISI | |
| Jakicic, J. M., Winters, C., Lagally, K., Ho, J., Robertson, R. J., Wing, R. R. (1999) The accuracy of the TriTrac-R3D accelerometer to estimate energy expenditure. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise 31: 747–754. doi: 10.1097/00005768-199905000-00020. Google Scholar | Crossref | Medline | ISI | |
| Janssen, I., LeBlanc, A. G. (2010) Systematic review of the health benefits of physical activity and fitness in school-aged children and youth. International Journal of Behavioral Nutrition and Physical Activity 7: 40–56. doi: 10.1186/1479-5868-7-40. Google Scholar | Crossref | Medline | ISI | |
| Janssen, I., Katzmarzyk, P. T., Boyce, W. F., Vereecken, C., Mulvihill, C., Roberts, C. (2005) Comparison of overweight and obesity prevalence in school-aged youth from 34 countries and their relationships with physical activity and dietary patterns. Obesity Reviews 6: 123–132. doi: 10.1111/j.1467-789X.2005.00176.x. Google Scholar | Crossref | Medline | ISI | |
| Kinnunen, T. I., Tennant, P. W. G., McParlin, C., Poston, L., Robson, S. C., Bell, R. (2011) Agreement between pedometer and accelerometer in measuring physical activity in overweight and obese pregnant women. BMC Public Health 11: 501–510. doi: 10.1186/1471-2458-11-501. Google Scholar | Crossref | Medline | ISI | |
| Kubesch, S., Walk, L., Spitzer, M., Kammer, T., Lainburg, A., Heim, R., Hille, K. (2009) A 30-minute physical education program improves students’ executive attention. Mind, Brain, and Education 3(4): 235–242. doi: 10.1111/j.1751-228X.2009.01076.x. Google Scholar | Crossref | ISI | |
| Mahar, M. (2011) Impact of short bouts of physical activity on attention-to-task in elementary school children. Preventive Medicine 52: S60–S64. doi: 10.1016/j.ypmed.2011.01.026. Google Scholar | Crossref | Medline | ISI | |
| Mahar, M., Murphy, S., Rowe, D., Golden, J., Shields, A., Raedeke, T. (2006) Effects of a classroom-based program on physical activity and on-task behavior. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise 38: 2086–2094. doi: 10.1249/01.mss.0000235359.16685.a3. Google Scholar | Crossref | Medline | ISI | |
| Northwest Education Association (2014). Measures of academic progress: https://www.nwea.org/assessments/map/. Google Scholar | |
| Ogden, C. L., Carroll, M. D., Kit, B. K., Flegal, K. M. (2012) Prevalence of obesity and trends in body mass index among US children and adolescents, 1999–2010. Journal of the American Medical Association 307(5): 483–490. doi: 10.1001/jama.2012.40. Google Scholar | Crossref | Medline | ISI | |
| Pangrazi, R., Beighle, A., Pangrazi, D. (2009) Promoting physical activity and health in the classroom, San Francisco, CA: Pearson Benjamin Cummings. Google Scholar | |
| Pyle, S. A., Sharkey, J., Yetter, G., Felix, E., Furlong, M. J., Carlos Poston, W. S. (2006) Fighting an epidemic: The role of schools in reducing childhood obesity. Psychology in the Schools 43(3): 361–376. doi: 10.1002/pits.20146. Google Scholar | Crossref | ISI | |
| Puyau, M., Adolph, A., Vohra, F. A., Zakeri, I., Butte, N. F. (2004) Prediction of activity energy expenditure using accelerometers in children. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise 36: 1625–1631. doi: 10.1249/01.MSS.0000139898.30804.60. Google Scholar | Medline | ISI | |
| Raudenbush, S. W., Bryk, A. S. (2002) Hierarchical linear models: Applications and data analysis methods, (2nd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. Google Scholar | |
| Raudenbush, S., Bryk, A., Congdon, R. (2004) HLM ™ 6 for Windows, Lincolnwood, IL: Scientific Software International. Google Scholar | |
| Rasberry, C. N., Lee, S. M., Robin, L., Laris, B. A., Russell, L. A., Coyle, K. K., Nihiser, A. J. (2011) The association between school-based physical activity, including physical education, and academic performance: A systematic review of the literature. Preventive Medicine 52: S10–S20. doi: 10.1016/j.ypmed.2011.01.027. Google Scholar | Crossref | Medline | ISI | |
| Raven, J., Raven, J. C., Court, J. H. (1998) Standard progressive matrices, San Antonio, TX: Harcourt. Google Scholar | |
| Reed, J. A., Einstein, G., Hahn, E., Hooker, S. P., Gross, V. P., Kravitz, J. (2010) Examining the impact of integrating physical activity on fluid intelligence and academic performance in an elementary school setting: A preliminary investigation. Journal of Physical Activity and Health 7: 343–351. PMid:20551490. Google Scholar | Crossref | Medline | ISI | |
| Sibley, B. A., Etnier, J. L. (2003) The relationship between physical activity and cognition in children: A meta-analysis. Pediatric Exercise Science 15: 243–256. Google Scholar | Crossref | ISI | |
| Sirard, J. R., Pate, R. R. (2001) Physical activity assessment in children and adolescents. Sports Medicine 31: 439–454. doi: 10.2165/00007256-200131060-00004. Google Scholar | Crossref | Medline | ISI | |
| Tomkinson, G. R., Olds, T. S. (2007) Secular changes in pediatric aerobic fitness test performance: The global picture. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise 50: 46–66. doi: 10.1159/000101075. Google Scholar | Crossref | |
| Tomporowski, P. D., Davis, C. L., Miller, P. H., Naglieri, J. A. (2008) Exercise and children’s intelligence, cognition, and academic achievement. Educational Psychology Review 20: 111–131. doi: 10.1007/s10648-007-9057-0. Google Scholar | Crossref | Medline | ISI | |
| Torrijos-Niño, C., Martínez-Vizcaíno, V., Pardo-Guijarro, M. J., García-Prieto, J. C., Arias-Palencia, N. M., Sánchez-López, M. (2014) Physical fitness, obesity, and academic achievement in schoolchildren. The Journal of Pediatrics 165(1): 104–109. doi: 10.1016/j.jpeds.2014.02.041. Google Scholar | Crossref | Medline | ISI | |
| US Department of Health and Human Services (2008) Physical Activity Guidelines Advisory Committee report, Washington, DC: US Department of Health and Human Services. Google Scholar | |
| Vincent, S. D., Pangrazi, R. P. (2002) Determining baseline physical activity levels in children. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise 14: 432–441. Google Scholar | |
| Voelcker-Rehage, C., Niemann, C. (2013) Structural and functional brain changes related to different types of physical activity across the life span. Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews 37: 2269–2295. doi: 10.1016/j.neubiorev.2013.01.028. Google Scholar | Crossref | ISI | |
| Voss, M. W., Nagamatsu, L. S., Liu-Ambrose, T., Kramer, A. F. (2011) Exercise, brain, and cognition across the life span. Journal of Applied Physiology 111: 1505–1513. doi: 10.1152/japplphysiol.00210.2011. Google Scholar | Crossref | Medline | ISI | |
| Wadsworth, D. D., Robinson, L. E., Beckham, K., Webster, K. (2012) Break for physical activity: Incorporating classroom-based physical activity breaks into preschools. Early Childhood Education Journal 39: 391–395. doi: 10.1007/s10643-011-0478-5. Google Scholar | Crossref | |
| World Health Organization. (2014, February). Physical activity. Retrieved from http://www.who.int/mediacentre/factsheets/fs385/en/. Google Scholar |
Author biographies
Alicia Fedewa, PhD, NCSP, is an Associate Professor in the Educational, School, and Counseling Psychology department at the University of Kentucky in the United States. She is a Licensed Psychologist and Certified School Psychologist. Dr Fedewa has published articles and presented on the effects of curricular physical activity on children’s mental health and learning outcomes. She teaches courses in consultation, psychological services in schools, and ethical/legal issues in school-based practice.
Soyeon Ahn, PhD, is an Associate Professor of Research, Measurement, and Evaluation program at the University of Miami in the United States. Her research involves methodological issues in the use of advanced statistical techniques such as Meta-analysis, Structural Equation Modeling, and Hierarchical Linear Modeling. She has also worked on several grant projects as a statistical consultant and teaches courses in advanced quantitative methods.
Heather Erwin, PhD, is an Associate Professor in the Department of Kinesiology and Health Promotion at the University of Kentucky in the United States. Her research interests include physical activity promotion for youth, primarily in the school environment. She teaches courses on physical education methods, adapted physical education, physical education for the classroom teacher, and teaching effectiveness.
Matthew C. Davis, MS, is a doctoral student and Research Assistant in the School Psychology program at the University of Kentucky. He has Master’s Degrees in both Educational Psychology and School Psychology. Cody’s scholarly work has primarily included studies examining the effects of school-based physical activity on behavioral and academic outcomes. Most recently, he presented a study examining the influence of physical activity integrated into the school curriculum on fluid intelligence and academic achievement.
