![[PDF]](/pb-assets/Icons/adobe-pdf-icon-1498649896243.png){kind=icon}
Abstract
Educational accountability policies have led to a growth in the use of high-stakes examinations for a number of important educational decisions, including the evaluation of teacher effectiveness. As such, educators are under increasing pressure to raise student test performance. In an attempt to prepare students for a high-stakes exam, teachers often resort to using threat-based messages that focus on the negative consequences of test failure rather than messages highlighting students’ ability or expectation for high performance. However, the relative influence of teacher messaging (threat-based or facilitating) under different testing conditions is unknown. The present investigation examined the use of fear and efficacy appeals with 487 university students. Anxiety, motivation, and test performance data were collected during a typical, lower stakes testing situation and a higher-stakes, final course examination. A two-way mixed ANOVA and a mediation analysis were used to examine between (i.e. fear and efficacy appeals) and within (i.e. different testing conditions) subject factors. Results suggest that fear appeals significantly harm student test performance relative to efficacy appeals, even when controlling for the impact of intrinsic motivation on test anxiety. Contrary to prediction, student anxiety did not appear to explain the relationship between fear appeals and lowered test performance. The potential implications of findings are discussed, including the importance of instructional context with regards to teacher instructional practices and student success.
References
Section:
| Ben Jaafar, S., Anderson, S. (2007) Policy trends and tensions in accountability for educational management and services in Canada. Alberta Journal of Educational Research 53(2): 205–225. Google Scholar | |
| Black, P., Wiliam, D. (2005) Lessons from around the world: How policies, politics and cultures constrain and afford assessment practices. The Curriculum Journal 16(2): 249–261. Google Scholar | Crossref | |
| Brackney, B. E., Karabenick, S. A. (1995) Psychopathology and academic performance: The role of motivation and learning strategies. Journal of Counseling Psychology 42(4): 456doi: 10.1037/0022‐0167.42.4.456. Google Scholar | Crossref | ISI | |
| Braden, J. P. (2007). Using data from high-stakes testing in program planning and evaluation. Journal of Applied School Psychology, 23(2), 129–150. Google Scholar | |
| Deci, E. L., Koestner, R., Ryan, R. M. (1999) A meta-analytic review of experiments examining the effects of extrinsic rewards on intrinsic motivation. Psychological Bulletin 125(6): 627–668. doi: 10.1037/0033-2909.125.6.627. Google Scholar | Crossref | Medline | ISI | |
| den Brok, P., Brekelmans, M., Wubbels, T. (2004) Interpersonal teacher behavior and student outcomes. School Effectiveness and School Improvement 15(3/4): 407–442. doi: 10.1080/09243450512331383262. Google Scholar | Crossref | ISI | |
| Friedman, I. A., Bendas-Jacob, O. (1997) Measuring perceived test anxiety in adolescents: A self-report scale. Educational and Psychological Measurement 57: 1035–1046. doi: 10.1177/0013164497057006012. Google Scholar | SAGE Journals | ISI | |
| Hayes, A. (2013) Introduction to mediation, moderation, and conditional process analysis: A regression-based approach, New York, NY: Guildford. Google Scholar | |
| Hembree, R. (1988) Correlates, causes, effects, and treatment of test anxiety. Review of Educational Research 58(1): 47–77. doi: 10.3102/00346543058001047. Google Scholar | SAGE Journals | ISI | |
| Holloway, J. H. (2003) A global perspective on student accountability. Educational Leadership 60(5): 74–76. Google Scholar | ISI | |
| Hursh, D. (2007) Assessing No Child Left Behind and the rise of neoliberal education policies. American Educational Research Journal 44(3): 493–518. doi: 10.3102/0002831207306764. Google Scholar | SAGE Journals | ISI | |
| Jones, B. (2008) The unintended outcomes of high-stakes testing. Journal of Applied School Psychology 23(2): 65–86. doi: 10.1300/j370v23n02_05. Google Scholar | Crossref | |
| Maloney, E. K., Lapinski, M. K., Witte, K. (2011) Fear appeals and persuasion: A review and update of the Extended Parallel Process Model. Social and Personality Psychology Compass 5(4): 206–219. doi: 10.1111/j.1751-9004.2011.00341.x. Google Scholar | Crossref | |
| Martin, A. J. (2001) The student motivation scale: A tool for measuring and enhancing motivation. Australian Journal of Guidance and Counselling 11: 1–20. Google Scholar | Crossref | |
| Menken, K. (2006) Teaching to the test: How No Child Left Behind impacts language policy, curriculum, and instruction for English Language Learners. Bilingual Research Journal 30(2): 521–546. doi: 10.1080/15235882.2006.10162888. Google Scholar | Crossref | |
| Pianta, R. C., Hamre, B. K. (2009) Conceptualization, measurement, and improvement of classroom processes: Standardized observations can leverage capacity. Educational Researcher 38: 109–119. doi: 10.3102/0013189X09332374. Google Scholar | SAGE Journals | ISI | |
| Putwain, D. (2008) Do examinations stakes moderate the test anxiety-examination performance relationship? Educational Psychology 28(2): 109–118. doi: 10.1080/01443410701452264. Google Scholar | Crossref | ISI | |
| Putwain, D., Best, N. (2011) Fear appeals in the primary classroom: Effects on test anxiety and test grade. Learning and Individual Differences 21(5): 580–584. doi: 10.1016/j.lindif.2011.07.007. Google Scholar | Crossref | ISI | |
| Putwain, D. W., Best, N. (2012) Do highly test anxious students respond differentially to fear appeals made prior to a test? Research in Education881–910. doi: 10.7227/rie.88.1.1. Google Scholar | |
| Putwain, D. W., Kearsley, R., Symes, W. (2012) Do creativity self-beliefs predict literacy achievement and motivation? Learning and Individual Differences 22: 370–374. doi: 10.1016/j.lindif.2011.12.001. Google Scholar | Crossref | ISI | |
| Putwain, D. W., Remedios, R. (2014) The scare tactic: Do fear appeals predict motivation and exam scores? School Psychology Quarterly 29(4): 503–516. doi: 10.1037/spq0000048. Google Scholar | Crossref | Medline | ISI | |
| Putwain, D. W., Roberts, C. M. (2009) The development of an instrument to measure teachers’ use of fear appeals in the GCSE classroom. British Journal of Educational Psychology 79(4): 643–661. doi: 10.1348/000709909X426130. Google Scholar | Crossref | Medline | ISI | |
| Putwain, D. W., Symes, W. (2011) Teachers’ use of fear appeals in the mathematics classroom: Worrying or motivating students? British Journal of Educational Psychology 81(3): 456–474. doi: 10.1348/2044-8279.002005. Google Scholar | Crossref | Medline | ISI | |
| Putwain, D. W., Symes, W. (2014) The perceived value of maths and academic self-efficacy in the appraisal of fear appeals used prior to a high-stakes test as threatening or challenging. Social Psychology of Education 17: 229–248. Google Scholar | Crossref | ISI | |
| Ratelle, C. F., Guay, F., Vallerand, R. J., Larose, S., Senécal, C. (2007) Autonomous, controlled, and amotivated types of academic motivation: A person-oriented analysis. Journal of Educational Psychology 99: 734–746. doi: 10.1037/0022-0663.99.4.734. Google Scholar | Crossref | ISI | |
| Raudenbush, S. W. (2004) What are value-added models estimating and what does this imply for statistical practice. Journal of Educational and Behavioral Statistics 29: 121–129. doi: 10.3102/ 10769986029001121. Google Scholar | SAGE Journals | ISI | |
| Reddy, L. A., Fabiano, G., Jimerson, S. R. (2013) Assessment of general education teachers’ Tier 1 classroom practices: Contemporary science, practice, and policy. School Psychology Quarterly 28: 273–276. doi: 10.1037/spq0000047. Google Scholar | Crossref | Medline | ISI | |
| Ryan, R. M., Deci, E. L. (2000) Self-determination theory and the facilitation of intrinsic motivation, social development, and well-being. American Psychologist 55(1): 68–78. doi: 10.1037/0003-066X.55.1.68. Google Scholar | Crossref | Medline | ISI | |
| Ryan, R. M., Weinstein, N. (2009) Undermining quality teaching and learning: A self-determination theory perspective on high-stakes testing. Theory and Research in Education 7(2): 224–233. doi: 10.1177/1477878509104327. Google Scholar | |
| Saeki, E., Pendergast, L., Segool, N., von der Embse, N. (2015) Psychosocial and instructional consequences of the common core state standards: Implications for research and practice. Contemporary School Psychology 19(2): 89–97. doi: 10.1007/s40688-014-0043-5. Google Scholar | Crossref | |
| Segool, N., Carlson, J., Goforth, A., von der Embse, N., Barterian, J. (2013) Heightened test anxiety among young children: Elementary school students’ anxious responses to high-stakes testing. Psychology in the Schools 50(5): 489–499. doi: 10.1002/pits.21689. Google Scholar | Crossref | ISI | |
| Segool, N., von der Embse, N., Mata, A., Gallant, J. (2014) Cognitive behavioral model of test anxiety in a high-stakes context: An exploratory study. School Mental Health 6: 50–61. doi: 10.1007/s12310-013-9111-7. Google Scholar | Crossref | ISI | |
| Sprinkle, R., Hunt, S., Simonds, C., Comadena, M. (2006) Fear in the classroom: An examination of teachers’ use of fear appeals and students’ learning outcomes. Communication Education 55(4): 389–402. doi: 10.1080/03634520600879170. Google Scholar | Crossref | |
| Vallerand, R. J., Pelletier, L. G., Blais, M. R., Brière, N. M., Senécal, C., Vallières, E. F. (1992) The academic motivation scale: A measure of intrinsic, extrinsic and amotivation in education. Educational and Psychological Measurement 52: 1003–1017. doi:10.1177/0013164492052004025. Google Scholar | SAGE Journals | ISI | |
| Valli, L., Buese, D. (2007) The changing roles of teachers in an era of high-stakes accountability. American Educational Research Journal 44: 519–558. doi: 10.3102/0002831207306859. Google Scholar | SAGE Journals | ISI | |
| Vansteenkiste, M., Simons, J., Lens, W., Sheldon, K. M., Deci, E. L. (2004) Motivating learning, performance, and persistence: The synergistic role of intrinsic goals and autonomy support. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 87: 246–260. doi: 10.1037/0022-3514.87.2.246. Google Scholar | Crossref | Medline | ISI | |
| von der Embse, N., Hasson, R. (2012) Test anxiety and high-stakes tests: Implications for educators. Preventing School Failure 56(3): 180–187. doi: 10.1080/1045988X.2011.633285. Google Scholar | Crossref | |
| von der Embse, N. P., Kilgus, S. P., Bowler, M., Solomon, H., & Curtiss, C. (2015). Initial development and factor structure of the educator test stress inventory. Journal of Psychoeducational Assessment, 33(3), 223–237. doi: 10.1177/0734282914548329. Google Scholar | |
| von der Embse, N., Kilgus, S. P., Segool, N., Putwain, D. (2013) Identification and validation of a brief test anxiety screening tool. International Journal of School and Educational Psychology 1: 246–258. doi: 10.1080/21683603.2013.826152. Google Scholar | Crossref | |
| von der Embse, N., Witmer, S. (2014) High-stakes accountability: Student anxiety and large- scale testing. Journal of Applied School Psychology 2: 1–24. doi: 10.1080/15377903.2014.888529. Google Scholar | |
| von der Embse, N. P., Scott, E. C., & Kilgus, S. P. (2015). Sensitivity to change and concurrent validity of direct behavior ratings for academic anxiety. School Psychology Quarterly, 30(2), 244–259. doi: 10.1037/spq0000083. Google Scholar | |
| Walshaw, M. (2012) Teacher knowledge as fundamental to effective teaching practice. Journal of Mathematics Teacher Education 15(3): 181–185. doi: 10.1007/s10857-012-9217-0. Google Scholar | Crossref | |
| Witte, K. (1992) Putting the fear back into fear appeals: The extended parallel process model. Communication Monographs 59(4): 329–349. doi: 10.1080/03637759209376276. Google Scholar | Crossref | ISI | |
| Witte, K., Allen, M. (2000) A meta-analysis of fear appeals: Implications for effective public health campaigns. Health Education and Behavior 27(5): 591–615. doi: 10.1177/109019810002700506. Google Scholar | SAGE Journals | ISI | |
| Wong, N. H., Cappella, J. N. (2009) Antismoking threat and efficacy appeals: Effects on smoking cessation intentions for smokers with low and high readiness to quit. Journal of Applied Communication Research 37(1): 1–20. doi: 10.1080/00909880802593928. Google Scholar | Crossref | Medline | ISI | |
| Yildirim, S. (2012) Teacher support, motivation, learning strategy use, and achievement: A multi-level mediation model. Journal of Experimental Education 80: 150–172. doi: 10.1080/00220973.2011.596855. Google Scholar | Crossref | ISI | |
| Zeidner, M. (1998) Test anxiety: The state of the art, New York, NY: Plenum Press. Google Scholar |
