![[PDF]](/pb-assets/Icons/adobe-pdf-icon-1498649896243.png){kind=icon}
Abstract
As one key element of establishing a superhero persona, many superhero myths are based on the principle of experiencing parental loss at an early age. This study examined the impact of group bibliotherapy using superhero stories with children and adolescents who have experienced parental absence. The 187 participants who resided in foster care were divided into three experimental conditions: Bibliotherapy with superhero stories, bibliotherapy without superheroes, and no treatment. Four dependent variables were tested in a pre–post–follow-up design: Anxiety, violent behavior, aggression, and future orientations. Results indicated that the strongest desired outcomes were obtained in the superhero treatment condition: There were significant positive changes on all four dependent variables, with changes sustained at follow-up. In the other treatment condition, significant changes were observed on only two variables and were not sustained at follow-up. No significant changes were observed in the non-treatment group. On the future orientations scale, only children in the superhero condition indicated change: They gained in future goals and had reduced fantasies about home. In general, results support the effectiveness of bibliotherapy with children and clearly point to the unique contribution of bibliotherapy content tailored to children's specific needs.
Keywords aggression, anxiety, bibliotherapy, foster care, future orientation, parental loss, superhero
References
Section:
| Achenbach, T., Edelbrock, C. (1986) Manual for Teacher's Report Form and teacher version of the child behavior profile, Burlington, VT: University of Vermont. Google Scholar | |
| Allen, M., Donohue, W., Griffin, A., Ryan, D., Turner, M. (2003) Comparing the influence of parents and peers on the choice to use drugs. A meta-analytic summary of the literature. Criminal Justice and Behavior 30(2): 163–186. doi: 10.1177/0093854802251002. Google Scholar | SAGE Journals | ISI | |
| Anderson, C. A., Dill, K. E. (2000) Video games and aggressive thoughts, feelings, and behavior in the laboratory and in life. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 78: 772–790. doi: 10.1037//O022-3514.78.4.772. Google Scholar | Crossref | Medline | ISI | |
| Ary, D. V., Duncan, T., Duncan, S. C., Hops, H. (1999) Adolescent problem behavior: The influence of parents and peers. Behavior Research and Therapy 37(3): 217–230. doi: 10.1016/S0005-7967(98)00133-8. Google Scholar | Crossref | Medline | ISI | |
| Baker, J. A. (1987) The social work dictionary, Silver Springs, MD: National Association of Social Workers (NASW). Google Scholar | |
| Bauman, K. E., Carver, K., Gleiter, K. (2001) Trends in parent and friend influence during adolescence: The case of adolescent cigarette smoking. Addictive Behavior 26(3): 349–361. doi: 10.1016/S0306-4603(00)00110-6. Google Scholar | Crossref | Medline | ISI | |
| Beck, K., Boyle, J., Boekeloo, B. (2003) Parental monitoring and adolescent alcohol risk in a clinic population. American Journal of Health Behavior 27(2): 108–115. doi: 10.5993/AJHB.27.2.2. Google Scholar | Crossref | Medline | ISI | |
| Bender, L., Lourie, R. (1941) The effect of comic books on the ideology of children. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry 11: 540–550. doi: 10.1111/j.1939-0025.1941.tb05840.x. Google Scholar | Crossref | |
| Betzalel, N., Shechtman, Z. (2010) Bibliotherapy treatment for children with adjustment difficulties: A comparison of affective and cognitive bibliotherapy. Journal of Creativity in Mental Health 5: 426–439. doi: 10.1080/15401383.2010.527816. Google Scholar | Crossref | |
| Bowlby, J. (1951) Maternal care and mental health: A report prepared on behalf of the World Health Organization as a contribution to the United Nations programme for the welfare of homeless children. Bulletin of the World Health Organization 3: 355–534. Google Scholar | Medline | |
| Bowlby, J. (1973) Attachment and loss, Vol. 2. Separation: Anxiety and anger, New York, NY: Basic Books. Google Scholar | |
| Buss, A. H., Perry, M. (1992) The Aggression Questionnaire. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 63: 452–459. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.63.3.452. Google Scholar | Crossref | Medline | ISI | |
| Dowdney, L. (2000) Annotation: Childhood bereavement following parental death. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry 41: 819–830. doi: 10.1111/1469-7610.00670. Google Scholar | Crossref | Medline | ISI | |
| Estés, C. P. (1992) Women who run with wolves: Myths and stories of the wild woman archetype, New York, NY: Ballantine. Google Scholar | |
| Forehand, R. L., Merchant, M. J., Long, N., Garai, E. (2010) An examination of parenting the strong-willed child as bibliotherapy for parents. Behavior Modification 34: 57–76. doi: 10.1177/0145445509356351. Google Scholar | SAGE Journals | ISI | |
| Gersie, A. (1997) Reflections on the therapeutic storymaking: The use of stories in groups, London: Jessica Kingsley. Google Scholar | |
| Gladding, S. T. (2005) Counseling as an art: The creative arts in counseling, (3rd ed). Alexandria, VA: American Counseling Association. Google Scholar | |
| Goyette, C. H., Conners, C. K., Ulrich, R. F. (1978) Normative data on revised Conner's Parent and Teacher Rating Scales. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology 6: 221–236. doi: 10.1007/BF00919127. Google Scholar | Crossref | Medline | ISI | |
| Greenberg, L. S. (2002) Emotion-focused therapy: Coaching clients to work through their feelings, Washington, DC: American Psychological Association. Google Scholar | Crossref | |
| Hartos, J., Eitel, P., Simons-Morton, B. (2002) Parenting practices and adolescent risky driving: A three-month prospective study. Health Education & Behavior 29(2): 194–206. doi: 10.1177/109019810202900205. Google Scholar | SAGE Journals | ISI | |
| Jack, S. J., Ronan, K. R. (2008) Bibliotherapy: Practice and research. School Psychology International 29(2): 161–182. doi: 10.1177/0143034308090058. Google Scholar | SAGE Journals | ISI | |
| Lawrence, J. S., Jewett, R. (2002) The myth of the American superhero, Cambridge: Eerdmans. Google Scholar | |
| Leve, L. D., Harold, G. T., Chamberlain, P., Landsverk, J. A., Fisher, P. A., Vostanis, P. (2012) Practitioner review: Children in foster care–vulnerabilities and evidence-based interventions that promote resilience processes. The Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry 53(12): 1197–1211. doi: 10.1111/j.1469-7610.2012.02594.x. Google Scholar | Crossref | Medline | ISI | |
| Longmore, M. A., Manning, W. D., Giordano, P. C. (2013) Parent-child relationships in adolescence. In: Fine, M. A., Fincham, F. D. (eds) Handbook of family theories: A content-based approach, New York, NY: Routledge, pp. 28–50. Google Scholar | |
| McCabe, K., Barnett, D. (2000) First comes work, then comes marriage: Future orientation among African American young adolescents. Family Relations 49: 63–70. doi: 10.1111/j.1741-3729.2000.00063.x. Google Scholar | Crossref | ISI | |
| McKendree-Smith, N. L., Floyd, M., Scogin, F. R. (2003) Self-administered treatments for depression: A review. Journal of Clinical Psychology 59: 275–288. doi: 10.1002/jclp.10129. Google Scholar | Crossref | Medline | ISI | |
| Mikulincer, M., Shaver, P. R. (2016) Attachment in adulthood: Structure, dynamics, and change, (2nd ed). New York, NY: Guilford Press. Google Scholar | |
| Muris, P., Mayer, B., Meesters, C. (2000) Self-reported attachment style, anxiety, and depression in children. Social Behavior and Personality 28: 157–162. doi: 10.2224/sbp.2000.28.2.157. Google Scholar | Crossref | ISI | |
| Muris, P., Meesters, C. (2002) Attachment, behavioral inhibition, and anxiety disorders symptoms in normal adolescents. Journal of Psychopathology and Behavioral Assessment 24: 97–106. doi: 10.1023/A:1015388724539. Google Scholar | Crossref | ISI | |
| Nolan, C. (Director) (2005) Batman begins [Motion picture], USA: Warner Brothers. Google Scholar | |
| Nyenhuis, N., Golm, D., Kröner-Herwig, B. (2013) A systematic review and meta-analysis on the efficacy of self-help interventions in tinnitus. Cognitive Behavior Therapy 42: 159–169. doi: 10.1080/16506073.2013.803496. Google Scholar | Crossref | Medline | ISI | |
| Reynolds, C. R., Richmond, B. O. (1985) Revised Children's Manifest Anxiety Scale (RCMAS) manual, Los Angeles, CA: Western Psychological Services. Google Scholar | |
| Rubin, L. C. (2007) Using superheroes in counseling and play therapy, New York, NY: Springer. Google Scholar | |
| Seginer, R. (2000) Defensive pessimism and optimism correlates of adolescent future orientation: A domain-specific analysis. Journal of Adolescent Research 15: 307–326. doi: 10.1177/0743558400153001. Google Scholar | SAGE Journals | ISI | |
| Seginer, R. (2008) Future orientation in times of threat and challenge: How resilient adolescents construct their future. International Journal of Behavioral Development 32: 272–282. doi: 10.1177/0165025408090970. Google Scholar | SAGE Journals | ISI | |
| Seginer, R. (2009) Future orientation: Developmental and ecological perspectives, New York, NY: Springer. Google Scholar | Crossref | |
| Seginer, R., Shoyer, S. (2012) How mothers affect adolescents' future orientation: A two-source analysis. Japanese Psychological Research 54(3): 310–320. doi: 10.1111/j.1468-5884.2012.00522.x. Google Scholar | Crossref | ISI | |
| Seligman, M. E. P. (2002) Positive psychology, positive prevention, and positive therapy. In: Snyder, C. R., Lopez, S. J. (eds) Handbook of positive psychology, New York, NY: Oxford University Press, pp. 3–9. Google Scholar | |
| Seligman, M. E. P., Steen, T. A., Park, N., Peterson, C. (2005) Positive psychology progress: Empirical validation of interventions. American Psychologist 60(5): 410–421. doi: 10.1037/0003-066X.60.5.410. Google Scholar | Crossref | Medline | ISI | |
| Shechtman, Z. (2006) The contribution of bibliotherapy to the counseling of aggressive boys. Psychotherapy Research 16: 631–636. doi: 10.1080/10503300600591312. Google Scholar | Crossref | ISI | |
| Shechtman, Z. (2007) Group counseling and psychotherapy with children and adolescents, Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum. Google Scholar | |
| Shechtman, Z. (2010) Treating child and adolescent aggression through bibliotherapy, New York, NY: Springer. Google Scholar | |
| Shechtman, Z., Ifargan, M. (2009) School-based integrated and segregated interventions to reduce aggression. Aggressive Behavior 35: 342–356. doi: 10.1002/ab.20311. Google Scholar | Crossref | Medline | ISI | |
| Shechtman, Z., Mor, M. (2010) Groups for children and adolescents with trauma-related symptoms: Outcomes and processes. International Journal of Group Psychotherapy 60: 221–244. doi: 10.1521/ijgp.2010.60.2.221. Google Scholar | Crossref | Medline | ISI | |
| Shechtman, Z., Pastor, R. (2005) Cognitive-behavioral and humanistic group treatment for children with learning disabilities: A comparison of outcomes and process. Journal of Counseling Psychology 52: 322–336. doi: 10.1037/0022-0167.52.3.322. Google Scholar | Crossref | ISI | |
| Shechtman, Z., Tutian, R. (2016) Teachers treat aggressive children: An outcome study. Teaching and Teacher Education 58: 28–34. doi: 10.1016/j.tate.2016.04.005. Google Scholar | Crossref | ISI | |
| Tallman, K., Bohart, A. C. (1999) The client as a common factor: Clients as self-healers. In: Hubble, M. A., Duncan, B. L., Miller, S. D. (eds) The heart and soul of change: What works in therapy, Washington, DC: American Psychological Association., pp. 91–131. doi: 10.1037/11132-003. Google Scholar | Crossref | |
| Yalom, I. D., Leszcz, M. (2005) The theory and practice of group psychotherapy, (5th ed.). New York, NY: Basic Books. Google Scholar |
Author biographies
Nurit Betzalel is a PhD student at the University of Haifa, in Israel. She is trained as a bibliotherapist and works as a bibliotherapist in schools and in private practice.
Zipora Shechtman is Professor (Emerita) Faculty of Education, Haifa University, in Israel. Her main research area is group counseling and psychotherapy with children, adolescents, parents, and teachers. In her counseling sessions, she offers bibliotherapy as an adjunct to the therapy process. She is fellow of APA and Distinguished fellow of AGPA. She has published three books and over 100 research papers.
