Attitudes and the Prediction of Behavior: A Meta-Analysis of the Empirical Literature
Abstract
The relationship between attitudes and behavior has been the topic of considerable debate. This article reports a meta-analysis of 88 attitude-behavior studies that reveals that attitudes significantly and substantially predict future behavior (mean r = .38; combined p <<. 000000000001). Relatively large and significant moderating effects were found for the attitudinal variables of attitude certainty, stability, accessibility, affective-cognitive consistency, and direct experience (mean q = .39). A smaller but significant moderating effect was found for self-monitoring (mean q = .29). Methodological factors associated with high attitude-behavior correlations included self-report measures of behavior (q =. 22), the use of nonstudents as subjects (q =. 17), and corresponding levels of specificity in the attitude and behavior measures (mean q = .47). The practical magnitude of attitude-behavior correlations is considered, as are the future directions of attitude-behavior research.
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1.
1. LaPiere believed that political attitudes would generally predict voting behavior because voting is essentially a symbolic behavior not involving actual interaction with the candidate. LaPiere cited the presidential polls conducted by the Literary Digest as "proof" that political attitudes can predict voting behavior. Ironically, in 1936, the Literary Digest conducted a huge poll (with an unrepresentative sample) and projected that Alfred Landon would defeat Franklin Roosevelt. The magazine went out of print in 1938.
2.
2. Ajzen and Fishbein (1977) argue that both measures should also correspond in their "context" and "time" elements as well. However, their review, and virtually all other research in this tradition, has focused only on the target and action elements.
3.
3. The following three variables were coded: site of attitude measure, site of behavior measure, and site of actual behavior. A composite variable was created such that if neither measure was taken in the lab, the study was coded as 0; if one measure was taken in the lab, the study was coded as 1; if both measures were taken in the lab, the study was coded as 2. The pattern of results was the same regardless of which coding scheme was used. For simplicity, the composite variable will be used in all analyses.
4.
4. Questions have been raised by an additional study (Fazio & Zanna, 1978a) that used a procedure very similar to Norman's (1975) but found no moderating effect. This study was not included in the formal meta-analysis because attitudes and behavior were measured by the same questionnaire.
5.
5. Comparisons of effect sizes across scientific disciplines yield several interesting findings. In biomedical research, two well-known studies were terminated ahead of schedule because the drugs were so clearly effective in reducing heart attacks that it was considered unethical to continue giving placebos to some subjects. The phi coefficient between receiving the drug (or a placebo) and having a heart attack (or not) was r= .03 for aspirin and r= .04 for propranolol (Rosenthal & Rosnow, 1991).
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