Abstract
This article discusses a qualitative case study examining one middle school’s response to intervention (RtI) efforts. Study participants included the principal, assistant principal, and members of the school’s leadership team. A description of the RtI consensus and infrastructure-building processes, consideration of the RtI facilitators, and a review of the accomplishments and barriers to implementation they encountered are provided.
|
Alfassi, M. (1998). Reading for meaning: The efficacy of reciprocal teaching in fostering reading comprehension in high school students in remedial reading classes. American Educational Research Journal, 35, 309-331. Google Scholar | SAGE Journals | ISI | |
|
Biancarosa, G., Snow, C. E. (2004). Reading next–A vision for action and research in middle and high school literacy: A report to Carnegie Corporation of New York. Washington, DC: Alliance for Excellent Education. Google Scholar | |
|
Brown, J. L., Moffett, C. A. (1999). The hero’s journey: How educators can transform schools and improve learning. Alexandria, VA: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development. Google Scholar | |
|
Buffum, A., Mattos, M. (2009). Pyramid response to intervention: RTI, professional learning communities, and how to respond when kids don’t learn. Bloomington, IN: Solution Tree Press. Google Scholar | |
|
Chalfant, J. C., Pysh, M. V. (1989). Teacher assistance teams: Five descriptive studies on 96 teams. Remedial and Special Education, 10(4), 49-58. Google Scholar | SAGE Journals | ISI | |
|
Christ, T. J., Hintze, J. M. (2007). Psychometric considerations when evaluating response to intervention. In Jimerson, S. R., Burns, M. K., VanDerHeyden, A. M. (Eds.), Handbook of response to intervention: The science and practice of assessment and intervention (pp. 93-105). New York, NY: Springer Science. Google Scholar | Crossref | |
|
Council for Exceptional Children Policy Manual . (2008). Section 4, part 3, pp. 1-10. Google Scholar | |
|
Craig, S., Hull, K., Haggart, A. G., Perez-Selles, M. (2000). Promoting cultural competence through teacher assistance teams. Teaching Exceptional Children, 32(3), 6-12. Google Scholar | SAGE Journals | |
|
DuFour, R., DuFour, R., Eaker, R. (2008). Revisiting professional learning communities at work: New insights for improving schools. Bloomington, IN: Solution Tree Press. Google Scholar | |
|
DuFour, R., Marzano, R. (2011). Leaders of learning: How district, school, and classroom leaders improve student achievement. Bloomington, IN: Solution Tree Press. Google Scholar | |
|
Duffy, H. (2007). Meeting the needs of significantly struggling learners in high school: A look at approaches to tiered intervention. Washington, DC: U. S. Department of Education, National High School Center. Google Scholar | |
|
Edmonds, M. S., Vaughn, S., Wexler, J., Reutebuch, C., Cable, A., Tackett, K. K., Schnakenberg, J. W. (2009). A synthesis of reading interventions and effects on reading comprehension outcomes for older struggling readers. Review of Educational Research, 79, 262-300. Google Scholar | SAGE Journals | ISI | |
|
Ehri, L. C., Nunes, S. R., Stahl, S. A., Willows, D. M. (2001). Systematic phonics instruction helps students learn to read: Evidence from the National Reading Panel’s meta-analysis. Review of Educational Research, 71(3), 393-447. Google Scholar | SAGE Journals | ISI | |
|
Faggella-Luby, M., Wardwell, M. (2011). RTI in a middle school: Findings and practical implications of a tier 2 reading comprehension study. Learning Disability Quarterly, 34, 35-49. Google Scholar | SAGE Journals | ISI | |
|
Florida Department of Education . (2008). Statewide Response to Instruction/Intervention (RtI) Implementation Plan. Retrieved from http://www.fldoe.org/schools/rti.asp Google Scholar | |
|
Foorman, B., Al Otaiba, S. (2009). Reading remediation: State of the art. In McCardle, P., Pugh, K. (Eds.), How children learn to read: Current issues and new directions in the integration of cognition, neurobiology, and genetics of reading and dyslexia research and practice (pp. 257-274). New York, NY: Psychology Press. Google Scholar | |
|
Fuchs, D., Fuchs, L. S. (2006). Introduction to response to intervention: What, why, and how valid is it? Reading Research Quarterly, 41, 93-99. Google Scholar | Crossref | ISI | |
|
Fuchs, D., Fuchs, L. S., Stecker, P. M. (2010). The “blurring” of special education in a new continuum of general education placements and services. Council for Exceptional Children, 76, 301-323. Google Scholar | SAGE Journals | ISI | |
|
Fuchs, L. S., Fuchs, D. (2006). Implementing responsiveness-to-intervention to identify learning disabilities. Perspectives on Dyslexia, 32, 39-43. Google Scholar | |
|
Fuchs, L. S., Fuchs, D. (2007). A model for implementing responsiveness to intervention. Teaching Exceptional Children, 39(5), 14-20. Google Scholar | SAGE Journals | |
|
Fullan, M. (2010). All systems go: The change imperative for whole system reform. Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin Press. Google Scholar | |
|
Glaser, B. G., Strauss, A. L. (1967). The discovery of grounded theory. Chicago, IL: Aldine. Google Scholar | |
|
Glover, T. A. (2010). Supporting all students: The promise of response to intervention. In Glover, T. A., Vaughn, S. (Eds.), The promise of response to intervention: Evaluating current science and practice (pp. 143-186). New York, NY: Guilford. Google Scholar | |
|
Hargreaves, A., Goodson, I. (2006). Educational change over time? The sustainability and non-sustainability of decades of secondary school change and continuity. Educational Administration Quarterly, 42, 3-41. Google Scholar | SAGE Journals | ISI | |
|
Heller, R., Greenleaf, C. (2007). Literacy instruction in the content areas: Getting to the core of middle and high school improvement. Washington, DC: Alliance for Excellent Education. Google Scholar | |
|
Hord, S. M. (1997). Professional learning communities: Communities of continuous inquiry and improvement. Austin, TX: Southwest Educational Development Laboratory. Retrieved from http://www.sedl.org/pubs/change34/ Google Scholar | |
|
Individuals With Disabilities Education Improvement Act of 2004, Pub. L. 108-466. Illinois State Response to Intervention Plan . (2008). Retrieved from http://www.isbe.state:il.us/pdf/rti_state_plan.pdf Google Scholar | |
|
Johnson, E. S., Smith, L. (2008). Implementation of response to intervention at middle school. Teaching Exceptional Children, 40(3), 46-52. Google Scholar | SAGE Journals | |
|
Kamil, M. L. (2003). Adolescents and literacy: Reading for the 21st century. Washington, DC: Alliance for Excellent Education. Google Scholar | |
|
Katzenbach, J. R., Kahn, Z. (2010). Leading outside the lines: How to mobilize the (in) formal organization. Boston, MA: Harvard Business School Press. Google Scholar | |
|
King, S., Lemons, C. J., Hill, D. R. (2012). Response to intervention in secondary schools: Considerations for administrators. NASSP Bulletin, 96(1), 5-22. Google Scholar | SAGE Journals | |
|
Kovaleski, J. F. (2007). Response to intervention: Considerations for research and systems change. School Psychology Review, 36, 638-646. Google Scholar | ISI | |
|
Kovaleski, J. F., Black, L. (2010). Multi-tier service delivery: Current status and future directions. In Glover, T. A., Vaughn, S. (Eds.), The promise of response to intervention: Evaluating current science and practice (pp. 23-56). New York, NY: Guilford Press. Google Scholar | |
|
Lambert, L. (2003). Leadership capacity for lasting school improvement. Alexandria, VA: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development. Google Scholar | |
|
Lawrence-Brown, D. (2004). Differentiated instruction: Inclusive strategies for standards-based learning that benefit the whole class. American Secondary Education, 32(3), 34-62. Google Scholar | |
|
Leslie, L., Caldwell, J. (2001). Qualitative Reading Inventory-3. New York, NY: Addison Wesley Longman. Google Scholar | |
|
Marshall, C., Rossman, G. B. (1999). Designing qualitative research. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. Google Scholar | |
|
McCardle, P., Chhabra, V. (2004). The voice of evidence in reading research. Baltimore, MD: Brookes. Google Scholar | |
|
McCook, J. E. (2006). The RtI guide: Developing and implementing a model in your schools. Arlington, VA: LRP. Google Scholar | |
|
Mellard, D. F., Johnson, E. (2008). RtI: A practitioner’s guide to implementing response to intervention. Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin Press. Google Scholar | Crossref | |
|
Merriam, S. B. (1998). Qualitative research and case study applications in education. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass. Google Scholar | |
|
National Association of State Directors of Special Education . (2005). Response to intervention: Policy considerations and implementation. Alexandria, VA: Author. Google Scholar | |
|
National Institute of Child Health and Human Development . (2000). Report of the National Reading Panel: Teaching children to read. Washington, DC: U. S. Department of Health and Human Services. Google Scholar | |
|
No Child Left Behind Act . (2001). Public Law 107-15. Google Scholar | |
|
Office of Special Education and Rehabilitative Services . (2002, November 5). 20 U.S.C. 9501 et seq., the Education Sciences Reform Act of 2002, Title I of Public Law 107-279. Google Scholar | |
|
O’Doherty, A., Ovando, M. N. (2009). Drivers of success: One district’s process for closing achievement gaps in a post-no child left behind context. Journal of School Leadership, 19, 6-32. Google Scholar | |
|
Pereles, D. A., Omdal, S., Baldwin, L. (2009). Response to intervention and twice exceptional learners: A promising fit. Gifted Child Today, 32(3), 40-51. Google Scholar | SAGE Journals | |
|
Powers, K. (2001). Problem solving student support teams. The California School Psychologist, 6, 19–30. Google Scholar | Crossref | |
|
Reed, D., Vaughn, S. (2010). Reading interventions for older students. In Glover, T. A., Vaughn, S. (Eds.), The promise of response to intervention: Evaluating current science and practice (pp. 143-186). New York, NY: Guilford Press. Google Scholar | |
|
Rayner, K., Foorman, B. R., Perfetti, C. A., Pesetsky, D., Seidenberg, M. S. (2001). How psychological science informs the teaching of reading. Psychological Science in the Public Interest, 2(2), 31-73. Google Scholar | SAGE Journals | |
|
Reading rewards . (2008). Retrieved from http://store.cambiumlearning.com Google Scholar | |
|
Reading horizons . (2009). Retrieved from http://www.readinghorizons.com Google Scholar | |
|
Sansosti, F. J., Noltemeyer, A., Goss, S. (2010). Principals’ perceptions of the importance and availability of response to intervention practices within high school settings. School Psychology Review, 39, 286-295. Google Scholar | ISI | |
|
Sharratt, L., Fullan, M. (2009). Realization: The change imperative for deepening district-wide reform. Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin Press. Google Scholar | |
|
Snow, C. E., Burns, M.S., Griffin, P. (Eds.). (1998). Preventing reading difficulties in young children. Washington, DC: National Academies Press. Google Scholar | |
|
Strauss, A. L., Corbin, J. M. (1990). Basics of qualitative research: Grounded theory procedures. Newbury Park, CA: Sage. Google Scholar | |
|
Strauss, A. L., Corbin, J. M. (1998). Description, conceptual ordering, and theorizing. In Strauss, A. L., Corbin, J. M. (Eds.), Basics of qualitative research: Techniques and procedures for developing grounded theory (2nd ed., pp. 15-25). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. Google Scholar | |
|
Subban, P. (2006). Differentiated instruction: A research basis. International Education Journal, 7, 935-947. Google Scholar | |
|
Sugai, G., Horner, R., Fixsen, D., Blase, K. (2010). Developing systems-level capacity for RTI implementation: Current efforts and future directions. In Glover, T. A., Vaughn, S. (Eds.), The promise of response to intervention: Evaluating current science and practice (pp. 143-186). New York, NY: Guilford Press. Google Scholar | |
|
Tilly, W. D. (2006). Response to intervention: An overview. What is it? Why do it? Is it worth it? The Special Edge, 19(2), 1-5. Google Scholar | |
|
Tomlinson, C. A. (1999). Mapping a route toward differentiated instruction. Educational Leadership, 57, 12-16. Google Scholar | ISI | |
|
Tomlinson, C. A., Kalbfleisch, M. I. (1998, November). Teach me, teach my brain: A call for differentiated classrooms. Educational Leadership, 56(3), 52-55. Google Scholar | ISI | |
|
Torgesen, J. K. (2007). Catch them before they fall: Early identification and intervention to prevent reading failure for young children. Paper presented to educators and parents in Durango, CO. Google Scholar | |
|
U.S. Department of Education . (2001). No Child Left Behind. Washington, DC: Author. Google Scholar | |
|
Vaughn, S., Fletcher, J. M. (2010). Thoughts on rethinking RTI with secondary students. School Psychology Review, 39, 296-299. Google Scholar | Medline | ISI | |
|
Vaughn, S., Fuchs, L. S. (2003). Redefining learning disabilities as inadequate response to instruction: The promise and potential problems. Learning Disabilities Research & Practice, 18, 137-146. Google Scholar | Crossref | |
|
Vaughn, S., Wanzek, J., Fletcher, J. M. (2007). Multiple tiers of intervention: A framework for prevention and identification of students with reading/learning disabilities. In Taylor, B. M., Ysseldyke, J. (Eds.), Educational interventions for struggling readers (pp. 173-196). New York, NY: Teachers College Press. Google Scholar | |
|
Wiener, R. M., Soodak, L. C. (2008). Special education administrators’ perspectives on response to intervention. Journal of Special Education Leadership, 21, 39-45. Google Scholar | |
|
Yovanoff, P., Duesbery, L., Alonzo, J., Tindal, G. (2005). Grade-level invariance of a theoretical causal structure predicting reading comprehension with vocabulary and oral reading fluency. Educational Measurement: Issues and Practice, 24, 4-12. Google Scholar | Crossref |
Bio
Shannon K. Dulaney, EdD, is an assistant professor in the Educational Leadership and Foundations Department at Brigham Young University (BYU). Before joining the BYU faculty 2 years ago, she served as a classroom teacher in California and as a classroom teacher, secondary school principal, and district special programs director in Utah.

