Abstract
Prior research on Troops to Teachers (TTT) affirms that TTTs are effective instructors likely to work in high-poverty, high-minority schools, teach high-demand subjects, use research-based instructional and classroom management practices linked with student achievement, and plan to stay in the profession. A nonexperimental, mixed method design incorporating quantitative and qualitative data collection and analysis was used. A total of 4,157 TTT completers and 517 administrators responded to surveys. The 2012-2013 follow-up study finds that TTTs are meeting most—but not all—the same high benchmarks. In addition, 92% of principals rate their TTTs as well-prepared to meet the needs of diverse learners in varied learning environments.
|
Annenberg Institute . (2004). Professional learning communities: Professional development strategies that improve instruction. Providence, RI: Author. Google Scholar | |
|
Archer, J. (2002, April 3). Research: Focusing in on teachers. Education Week, 21(29), 36-39. Google Scholar | |
|
Associated Press . (2014, May 5). Studies sound alarm on teacher-student diversity gap in U.S. Washington, DC: Author. Retrieved from http://www.cbsnews.com/news/studies-sound-alarm-on-teacher-student-diversity-gap-in-us/ Google Scholar | |
|
Banchero, S. (2013, August 16). Teachers face license loss. The Wall Street Journal, A4. Retrieved from http://online.wsj.com/article/SB10001424127887323455104579014764151835816.html Google Scholar | |
|
Bernard, H. R., Ryan, G. W. (2010). Analyzing qualitative data: Systematic approaches. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. Google Scholar | |
|
Boser, U. (2014, May). Teacher diversity revisited. A new state-by-state analysis. Washington, DC: The center for American Progress. Retrieved from http://www.americanprogress.org/wp-content/uploads/2014/05/TeacherDiversity.pdf Google Scholar | |
|
Boyd, D., Lankford, H., Loeb, S., Wyckoff, J. (2005). Explaining the short careers of high-achieving teachers in schools with low-performing students. American Economic Review, 95, 166-171. Google Scholar | Crossref | ISI | |
|
Bureau of Labor Statistics . (2014, January 8). Occupational Outlook Handbook, 2014-15: Special education teachers. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Labor. Retrieved from http://www.bls.gov/ooh/education-training-and-library/special-education-teachers.htm Google Scholar | |
|
Center for the Future of Teaching and Learning . (2003). The status of the teaching profession 2003 (Summary Rep.). Santa Cruz, CA: Author. Retrieved from http://www.cftl.org/documents/2003dec10summaryreport.pdf Google Scholar | |
|
Clotfelter, C., Ladd, H., Vigdor, J. (2005). Race and the distribution of novice teachers. Economics of Education Review, 24, 377-392. Google Scholar | Crossref | ISI | |
|
Council for Exceptional Children . (2013, December 3). Budget cuts threaten special education services, survey shows. Arlington, VA: Author. Retrieved from http://www.cec.sped.org/~/media/Files/Policy/BudgetCutsSurveyReleaseCEC.pdf Google Scholar | |
|
DANTES . (2012). DANTES troops to teachers employment demographics FY02 to present. Pensacola, FL: Author. Google Scholar | |
|
DANTES . (2013, June 26). Troops to Teachers. Program overview. Pensacola, FL: Author. Retrieved from http://www.dantes.doded.mil/Programs/docs/TTT_Overview.pdf Google Scholar | |
|
Darling-Hammond, L. (2000). Teacher quality and student achievement: A review of state policy evidence. Education Policy Analysis Archives, 8(1), Retrieved from http://epaa.asu.edu/epaa/v8n1/ Google Scholar | |
|
Darling-Hammond, L., Berry, B., Thoreson, A. (2001). Does teacher certification matter? Evaluating the evidence. Educational Evaluation and Policy Analysis, 23(1), 57-77. Google Scholar | SAGE Journals | ISI | |
|
Darling-Hammond, L., Sykes, G. (2003). Wanted: A national teacher supply policy for education: The right way to meet the “Highly Qualified Teacher” challenge. Education Policy Analysis Archives, 11(33). Retrieved from http://epaa.asu/epaa/v11n33/ Google Scholar | |
|
Digest of Education Statistics . (2011). Number and percentage distribution of teachers in public and private elementary and secondary schools, by selected teacher characteristics: Selected years, 1987-88 through 2011-12 (Table 209.10). Washington, DC: Institute of Education Sciences, U.S. Department of Education. Retrieved from http://nces.ed.gov/programs/digest/d13/tables/dt13_209.10.asp Google Scholar | |
|
DuFour, R., Eaker, R. (1998). Professional learning communities at work: Best practices for enhancing student achievement: Bloomington, IN: Solution Tree. Google Scholar | |
|
Education Insider . (2009). Congress considers expanding Troops to Teachers program. Mountain View, CA: Author. Retrieved from http://education-portalCom/articles/Congress_Considers_Expanding_Troops_to_Teachers_Program.html Google Scholar | |
|
Feistritzer, C. E. (2005, August 24). Profile of Troops to Teachers. Washington, DC: National Center for Education Information. Google Scholar | |
|
Gallagher, H. A. (2004). Vaughan elementary’s innovative teacher evaluation system: Are teacher evaluation scores related to growth in student achievement? Peabody Journal of Education, 79(4), 79-107. Google Scholar | Crossref | |
|
Goe, L., Stickler, L. M. (2008, March). Teacher quality and student achievement: Making the most of recent research (TQ Research and Policy Brief). Washington, DC: National Comprehensive Center for Teacher Quality. Retrieved from http://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ED520769.pdf Google Scholar | |
|
Goldhaber, D. (2002). The mystery of good teaching: Surveying the evidence on student achievement and teachers’ characteristics. Education Next, 2(1), 50-55. Retrieved from http://educationnext.org/the-mystery-of-good-teaching/ Google Scholar | |
|
Goldhaber, D. (2008). Addressing the teacher qualification gap. Washington, DC: Center for American Progress. Retrieved from http://www.americanprogress.org/issues/2008/11/pdf/teacher_qualification_gap.pdf Google Scholar | |
|
Halverson, R., Kelley, C., Kimball, S. (2004). Implementing teacher evaluation systems: How principals make sense of complex artifacts to shape local instructional practice. In Hoy, W., Miskel, C. (Eds.), Educational administration, policy, and reform: research and measurement. (pp. 153-188). Greenwich, CT: Information Age. Google Scholar | |
|
Hanushek, E. A., Kain, J. F., O’Brien, D. M., Rivkin, S. G. (2005). The market for teacher quality (Working Paper 11154). Cambridge, MA: National Bureau of Economic Research. Retrieved from http://www.nber.org/papers/w11154.pdf?new_window=1 Google Scholar | |
|
Hanushek, E. A., Kain, J., Rivkin, S. G. (1998). Teachers, schools, and academic achievement. Cambridge, MA: National Bureau of Economic Research. Google Scholar | Crossref | |
|
Harris, D. N., Sass, T. R. (2009). What makes for a good teacher and who can tell? (Working Paper 30). Washington, DC: The Urban Institute, National Center for Analysis of Longitudinal Data in Education Research. Retrieved from http://www.urban.org/uploadedpdf/1001431-what-makes-for-a-good-teacher.pdf Google Scholar | |
|
Heitin, L. (2013, November 6). Teacher-evaluation policies becoming more rigorous. Education Week, 33(11), 4. Google Scholar | |
|
Hiebert, K. (2013, May 14). Troops to Teachers legislation changes increase program eligibility (Press release). Retrieved from http://troopstoteachers.net/Portals/1/National%20Home%20Page/PressReleaseMay2013NewLegislationWebsitecopy.pdf Google Scholar | |
|
Hill, C. W. (1921). The efficiency ratings of teachers. Elementary School Journal, 21, 438-443. Google Scholar | Crossref | |
|
Iatarola, P., Stiefel, L. (2003). Intradistrict equity of public education resources and performance. Economics of Education Review, 22, 69-78. Google Scholar | Crossref | ISI | |
|
Imazeki, J., Goe, L. (2009). Distribution of highly qualified, experienced teachers: Challenges and opportunities (Teacher Quality Research & Policy Brief). Washington, DC: National Comprehensive Center on Teacher Quality. Google Scholar | |
|
Ingersoll, R. (2001). Teacher turnover and teacher shortages: An organizational analysis. American Educational Research Journal, 38, 499-534. Google Scholar | |
|
Ingersoll, R. M. (2002). The teacher shortage: A case of wrong diagnosis and wrong prescription. NASSP Bulletin, 86, 16-30. Google Scholar | SAGE Journals | |
|
Ingersoll, R. M. (2003, September). Is there really a teacher shortage? (Research Rep. Document R-03-4). Seattle: University of Washington, Center for the Study of Teaching and Policy. Retrieved from http://depts.washington.edu/ctpmail/PDFs/Shortage-RI-09-2003.pdf Google Scholar | |
|
Ingersoll, R. M., Perda, D. (2012). How high is teacher turnover and is it a problem? Philadelphia: Consortium for Policy Research in Education, University of Pennsylvania. Google Scholar | |
|
Investing in Our Future . (2012, August). Investing in our future. Returning teachers to the classroom. Washington, DC: White House Council of Economic Advisors. http://www.whitehouse.gov/sites/default/files/Investing_in_Our_Future_Report.pdf Google Scholar | |
|
Jacob, B. A., Lefgren, L. (2005). Principals as agents: Subjective performance measurement in education (Working Paper 11463). Cambridge, MA: National Bureau of Economic Research. Retrieved from http://www.nber.org/papers/w11463 Google Scholar | |
|
Jacob, B. A., Lefgren, L. (2008). Can principals identify effective teachers? Evidence on subjective performance evaluation in education. Journal of Labor Economics, 26(1), 101-136. Google Scholar | Crossref | ISI | |
|
Kane, T. J., Rockoff, J. E., Staiger, D. O. (2008). What does certification tell us about teacher effectiveness? Evidence from New York City. Economics of Education Review, 27, 615-631. Google Scholar | Crossref | ISI | |
|
Kane, T. J., Staiger, D. O. (2012). Gathering feedback for teaching. Combining high-quality observations with student surveys and achievement (MET Project Policy and Practice Brief). Seattle, WA: Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation. Retrieved from http://metproject.org/downloads/MET_Gathering_Feedback_Practioner_Brief.pdf Google Scholar | |
|
Kane, T. J., Taylor, E. S., Tyler, J. H., Wooten, A. L. (2010). Identifying effective classroom practices using student achievement data (Working Paper 15803). Cambridge, MA: National Bureau of Economic Research. Retrieved from http://www.danielsongroup.org/ckeditor/ckfinder/userfiles/files/IdentifyingEffectiveClassroomPractices.pdf Google Scholar | |
|
Kane, T. J., Taylor, E. S., Tyler, J. H., Wooten, A. L. (2011). Identifying effective classroom practices using student achievement data. Journal of Human Resources, 46(3), 587-613. Google Scholar | Crossref | ISI | |
|
Kane, T. J., Wooten, A. L., Taylor, E. S., Tyler, J. H. (2011, Summer). Evaluating teacher effectiveness. Can classroom observations identify practices that raise achievement? Education Next, 11(3). Retrieved from http://educationnext.org/evaluating-teacher-effectiveness/ Google Scholar | |
|
Kaplan, L. S., Owings, W. A. (2003). The politics of teacher quality. Phi Delta Kappan, 84, 687-692. Google Scholar | SAGE Journals | ISI | |
|
Kaplan, L. S., Owings, W. A., Nunnery, J. (2005). Principal quality: A Virginia study connecting Interstate School Leaders Licensure Consortium (ISLLC) Standards with student achievement. NASSP Bulletin, 89, 28-44. Google Scholar | SAGE Journals | |
|
Kimball, S. M., White, B., Milanowski, A. T., Borman, G. (2004). Examining the relationship between teacher evaluation and student assessment results in Washoe County. Peabody Journal of Education, 79(4), 54-78. Google Scholar | Crossref | |
|
Kringer, E. (2013, January 29). A look into future education program funding in a constrained environment. Paper presented to Troops to Teachers: Next Generation Planning Conference, Alexandria, VA. Google Scholar | |
|
Lankford, H., Loeb, S., Wyckoff, J. (2002). Teacher sorting and plight of urban schools: A descriptive analysis. Educational Evaluation and Policy Analysis, 24(1), 37-62. Google Scholar | SAGE Journals | ISI | |
|
Lee, V. E., Smith, J. B. (1996). Collective responsibility for learning and its effects on gains in achievement for early secondary students. American Journal of Education, 104, 103-147. Google Scholar | Crossref | ISI | |
|
Louis, K. S., Marks, H. (1998). Does professional community affect the classroom? Teachers’ work and student experience in restructured schools. American Journal of Education, 106, 532-575. Google Scholar | Crossref | ISI | |
|
Manning, P. K., Cullum-Swan, B. (1994). Narrative, content, and semiotic analysis. In N. K. Denz, Lincoln, Y. S. (Eds.), Handbook of qualitative research (pp. 463-477). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. Google Scholar | |
|
Marzano, R. J. (2003). What works in schools: Translating research into practice. Alexandria, VA: ASCD. Google Scholar | |
|
Mathers, C., Oliva, M., Laine, S. W. M. (2008). Improving instruction through effective teacher evaluation: Options for states and districts (TQ Research and Policy Brief). Washington, DC: National Comprehensive Center for Teacher Quality. Retrieved from http://www.tqsource.org/publications/February2008Brief.pdf Google Scholar | |
|
Medley, D. M., Coker, H. (1987). The accuracy of principals’ judgments of teacher performance. Journal of Educational Research, 80(4), 242-247. Google Scholar | Crossref | ISI | |
|
Milanowski, A. T. (2004). The relationship between teacher performance evaluation scores and student assessment: Evidence from Cincinnati. Peabody Journal of Education, 79(4), 33-53. Google Scholar | Crossref | |
|
Milanowski, A., Kimball, S. M., Heneman, H. G. (2010). Principal as human capital manager: Evidence from two large districts. Madison, WI: Consortium for Policy Research in Education, University of Wisconsin. Retrieved from http://cpre.wceruw.org/publications/School%20HCM%20paper.pdf Google Scholar | |
|
Milanowski, A. T., Kimball, S. M., Odden, A. (2005). Teacher accountability measures and links to learning. In Stiefel, L., Schwartz, A. E., Rubenstein, R., Zabel, J. (Eds.), Measuring school performance and efficiency: Implications for practice and research 2005 Yearbook of the American Education Finance Association (pp. 137-159). Larchmont, NY: Eye on Education. Google Scholar | |
|
Military Times . (2014). Troops to teachers. Education. Springfield, VA: Author. Retrieved from http://projects.militarytimes.com/guard-reserve-handbook/education/troops-to-teachers/ Google Scholar | |
|
Morgan, J. (2013, January 29). A private public partnership: The way ahead for Troops to Teachers. Paper presented at the National Troops to Teachers: Next Generation Planning Conference, Alexandria, VA. Google Scholar | |
|
Murnane, R. (1975). The impact of school resources on the learning of inner city children. Cambridge, MA: Ballinger. Google Scholar | |
|
National Association of Secondary School Principals . (2011, February). Teacher supervision and evaluation (NASSP Board Position Statements). Reston, VA: Author. Retrieved from http://www.nassp.org/Content.aspx?topic=Teacher_Supervision_and_Evaluation Google Scholar | |
|
National Governors Association . (2011). Preparing principals to evaluate teachers (Issue Brief). Washington, DC: National Governors Association Center for Best Practices. Retrieved from http://www.nga.org/files/live/sites/NGA/files/pdf/1110PRINCIPALEVALUATION.PDF Google Scholar | |
|
Nelson, B. S., Sassi, A. (2000). Shifting approaches to supervision: The case of mathematics supervision. Educational Administration Quarterly, 36(4), 553-584. Google Scholar | SAGE Journals | ISI | |
|
The New Teacher Project . (2012). The irreplaceables. Understanding the real retention crisis in America’s urban schools. Brooklyn, NY: Author. Retrieved from http://tntp.org/assets/documents/TNTP_Irreplaceables_2012.pdf Google Scholar | |
|
Nunnery, J. A., Kaplan, L. S., Owings, W. A., Pribesh, S. (2009). The effects of Troops to Teachers on student achievement: A meta-analytic approach. NASSP Bulletin, 93, 249-272. Google Scholar | SAGE Journals | |
|
Owings, W. A., Kaplan, L. S., Chappell, S. (2011). Troops to Teachers as school administrators: A national study of principal quality. NASSP Bulletin, 95, 212-236. Google Scholar | Abstract | |
|
Owings, W. A., Kaplan, L. S., Nunnery, J., Marzano, R., Myran, S., Blackburn, D. (2005). Supervisor perceptions of the quality of Troops to Teachers program completers and program completer perceptions of their preparation to teach: A national survey. Technical Report delivered under contract to Troops to Teachers, Pensacola, FL. Google Scholar | |
|
Owings, W. A., Kaplan, L. S., Nunnery, J., Marzano, R., Myran, S., Blackburn, D. (2006). Teacher quality and Troops to Teachers: A national study with implications for principals. NASSP Bulletin, 90, 102-131. Google Scholar | SAGE Journals | |
|
Peterson, K. D. (1987). Teacher evaluation with multiple and variable lines of evidence. American Educational Research Journal, 24, 311-317. Google Scholar | SAGE Journals | ISI | |
|
Peterson, K. D. (2000). Teacher evaluation: A comprehensive guide to new directions and practice (2nd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin Press. Google Scholar | |
|
Resmovits, J. (2013, November 14). Special education budget cuts, sequestration, hurt America’s most vulnerable students. Huffington Post. Retrieved from http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2013/11/14/special-education-budget-sequestration_n_4270058.html Google Scholar | |
|
Rockoff, J. E., Speroni, C. (2010). Subjective and objective evaluations of teacher effectiveness. American Economic Review, 100(2), 261-266. Google Scholar | Crossref | ISI | |
|
Rockoff, J. E., Staiger, D. O., Kane, T. J., Taylor, E. S. (2009). Providing information on teacher performance to school principals: Evidence from a randomized intervention in New York City (Center for Education Policy Research, Harvard University Working Paper). Retrieved from http://growththroughlearningillinois.org/Portals/0/Documents/InformationAndEmployeeEvaluation.pdf Google Scholar | |
|
Rockoff, J. E., Staiger, D. O., Kane, T. J., Taylor, E. S. (2010). Information and employee evaluation: Evidence from a randomized intervention in public schools (Working Paper 16240). Cambridge, MA: National Bureau of Economic Research. Retrieved from http://www.nber.org/papers/w16240 Google Scholar | |
|
Rockoff, J. E., Staiger, D. O., Kane, T. J., Taylor, E. S. (2011). Information and employee evaluation: Evidence from a randomized intervention in public schools. Retrieved from http://www.dartmouth.edu/~dstaiger/Papers/2012/Information%20and%20Evaluation%20RSKT%20aer%20accepted.pdf Google Scholar | |
|
Roza, M., Hill, P. T. (2004). How within district spending inequities help some schools to fail. Brookings Papers on Education Policy, 7, 201-227. Google Scholar | Crossref | |
|
Rugg, H. O. (1922). Is the rating of human character practicable? Journal of Educational Psychology, 12, 30-42. Google Scholar | Crossref | |
|
Sanders, W. L., Horn, S. P. (1995). Educational assessment reassessed: The usefulness of standardized and alternative measures of student achievement as indicates for the assessment of educational outcomes. Education Policy Analysis Archives, 3(6), 1-15. Retrieved from http://epaa.asu.edu/epaa/v3n6.html Google Scholar | |
|
Sartain, L., Stoelinga, S. R., Brown, E. R., Luppescu, S., Matsko, K. K., Miller, F. K., Glazer, D. (2011). Rethinking teacher evaluation. Lessons learned from classroom observations, principal-teacher conferences, and district implementation (Research Rep.). Chicago, IL: Consortium on Chicago School Research at the University of Chicago Urban Education Institute. Retrieved from http://ccsr.uchicago.edu/sites/default/files/publications/Teacher%20Eval%20Report%20FINAL.pdf Google Scholar | |
|
Sawchuk, S. (2011). What studies say about teacher effectiveness (Education Writers Association Research Brief). Retrieved from http://www.ewa.org/site/DocServer/TeacherEffectiveness.final.pdf?docID=2001 Google Scholar | |
|
Scafidi, B., Sjoquist, D. L., Stinebrickner, T. R. (2008). Race, poverty, and teacher mobility. Economics of Education Review, 26, 145-159. Google Scholar | Crossref | ISI | |
|
Stein, M. K., D’Amico, L. (2000, April). How subjects matter in school leadership. New Orleans, LA: American Educational Research Association. Retrieved from http://www.lrdc.pitt.edu/hplc/Publications/MKS&LMD-MultSubj-AERA2000.pdf Google Scholar | |
|
Talbert, J. (2010). Professional learning communities at the crossroads: How systems hinder or engender change. In Hargreaves, A., Lieberman, A., Fullan, A., Hopkins, M. (Eds.), Second international handbook of educational change (pp. 555-571). Dordrecht, Netherlands: Springer. Google Scholar | Crossref | |
|
U.S. Department of Education . (2009, November 18). Overview information; Race to the top funds; Notice inviting applications for new awards for fiscal year (FY) 2010: Notice Part IV. Federal Register, 74(221). Retrieved from http://edocket.access.gpo.gov/2009/pdf/E9.27427.pdf Google Scholar | |
|
Webster, J. (2014.). Special education careers. Opportunities are growing in the field of special education. About.com Special Education. Retrieved from http://specialed.about.com/od/specialedcareers/a/careerspreparation.htm Google Scholar | |
|
Weisberg, D., Sexton, S., Mulhern, J., Keeling, D. (2009). The widget effect: Our national failure to acknowledge and act on teacher effectiveness (2nd ed.). New York, NY: The New Teacher Project. Retrieved from: http://widgeteffect.org/downloads/TheWidgetEffect.pdf Google Scholar | |
|
Weisenstein, G. (2013, January 29). Troops to Teachers: Going forward as a public-private model. A proposal for positive change and sustainability (Draft: Consortium for the Advancement of Troops to Teachers). Paper presented at the National Troops to Teachers: Next Generation Planning Conference, Alexandria, VA. Google Scholar | |
|
Wells, F. L. (1907). A statistical study of literary merit. Archives of Psychology, 7, 5-30. Retrieved from http://www.archive.org/stream/statisticalstudy00well#page/8/mode/2up Google Scholar | |
|
Wiley, S. (2001). Contextual effects of student achievement: School leadership and professional community. Journal of Educational Change, 2(1), 1-33. Google Scholar | Crossref | |
|
Wise, A. E., Darling-Hammond, L., McLaughlin, M. W., Bernstein, H. T. (1985, September). Teacher evaluation: A study of effective practices (Special issue: The master teacher). Elementary School Journal, 6(1), 60-121. Google Scholar | |
|
Zinth, J. D. (2010). Teacher evaluation: New approaches for a new decade (ECS Issue Brief). Denver, CO: Education Commission of the States. Retrieved from http://www.ecs.org/clearinghouse/86/21/8621.pdf Google Scholar |

