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Abstract
The purpose of this research was to investigate the causes attributed by undergraduate music students to situations of failure and success in public music performance. Attributional Theory has been used in this research as the theoretical framework to understand how situations of success and failure are interpreted by the person of the activity. The analysis was conducted from an Intrapersonal perspective of motivation, i.e., how the attributions made by the students doing an undergraduate course in music revealed their notions and beliefs. The methodology used included a non-probabilistic survey and the data were collected through a self-administered questionnaire involving 130 undergraduate music students of southern Brazil. The results show that in situations considered to be successful, the most frequent attributed causes are effort (77.7%), persistence (65.4%), and interest in the performance (63.1%), whereas in situations considered to be failures the most important aspects are emotional (60.8%), difficulty of the task (36.2%), and lack of effort (30.8%). This research shows that students who have more musical experience regard their performances as good or excellent, whereas those that have little experience do not view themselves in this way. The data reveal that the greater the importance that is attached to an activity, the more time is spent on preparing for it; in the same way students tend to be more engaged with musical activities and devote more time to them when they are aware of their skills and value them. Music students feel responsible for their results, which shows that they are engaged in their learning and seek to satisfy an inner need to achieve success.
Introduction
The motivation aspects that drive people to learn and teach music is a subject of interest for the Research Group FAPROM.1 Founded in 2006, FAPROM is a research group sponsored by CNPq (National Council of Scientific and Technological Development) within the Music Graduate Program of Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul. FAPROM’s mission is to provide a high-level learning environment to Masters and PhD students, for future professors and researchers and, especially, to form leadership in Music Education. FAPROM is a national leader in the research on motivation to teach and to learn music in Brazil, with a portfolio of 14 research works in motivation, and more than 50 publications and presentations in Brazil and abroad.
The issue of musical performances, and its motivation aspects, has been increasingly discussed in recent decades, in particular with regard to preparing the repertoire for instrumental practice, encouraging the performer and understanding the emotional aspects involved in the experience of public performance. Research conducted by Papageorgi, Hallam, and Welch (2007) with performers showed that the anxiety in performance can lead to a negative impact on the performance quality. As research progresses in this area, it is becoming increasingly possible to draw closer to the social and cognitive background of the performer and discover what is involved in preparing the instrumental or vocal repertoire and also how the instumentalists themselves undergo a process of rationalizing this preparation with the aim of achieving a successful outcome (Santos & Hentschke, 2009).
Apart from the efforts made by the performer to ensure a successful performance, account should be taken of the context in which this practice takes place and its social implications. Instrumental practice undergoes variations depending on its nature and the circumstances of the musical task (e.g. a public hearing, competition or examination board), the level of specialization of the performer, the musician’s previous experience of giving performances, personality characteristics and also the degree of motivation of the individual. Hence, a public musical performance becomes an important situation for professional training because it is at this time that a musician can make a self-appraisal and be evaluated by others. Therefore, it is the responsibility of the student to be prepared for any outcome and be aware of the aspects that lead to success or failure in a musical performance. Sichivitsa (2007) reported that in his research, performers who have been playing for a longer period of time describe a better self concept than performers with few previous experiences in public performance.
In seeking to understand the reasons that lead performers to be successful or experience failure, one needs to know the performers’ own views of the reasons that lead to such a result. A concern to understand what leads students to study music, their goals, beliefs and views, as well as the extent to which they feel capable of carrying out musical activities, has encouraged various researchers to conduct investigations into different areas of teaching and learning music by employing theories of motivation as a reference mark.
Motivation is what moves and leads people to carry out certain activities and can be understood as a process, and thus, it cannot be observed directly, although it is present in the attitudes, choices and commitment required to undertake particular tasks (Boruchovitch & Martini, 2004; Reeve, 2011). The musical performance can be regarded as the way a performer plays, his or her means of interpreting a musical work and creating his or her style of practice and musical communication. However, the performer should be motivated before this process can be accomplished successfully. Reseach studies have shown that several aspects influence the motivational process, such as the following: anxiety, the support of third parties, a high level of skills, group lessons, and time for study. These can lead to the student being characterized on the basis of mistaken or predetermined judgements and assessments.
In Brazil, the higher education courses in performance are named as Undergraduate Course in Music (“Bacharelado”) (see Mota, & Figueiredo, 2012; Soares, 2012). This course allows students to study a repertoire of music that is suited to their interests during the semester and that can enable them to acquire the key skills needed for a performer. There is informal evidence that in Brazil the dropout of instrumental students may be due to the fact that teachers don’t know how to assess the real difficulties students are facing. Therefore, the main aim of this research was to investigate the causes attributed by undergraduate music students to situations of failure and success in public music performance. The specific aims were: a) to analyse the causal attributions and their links with demographic variables and b) to analyse the bearing that the causal attributions have on the preparation for performance, the degree of difficulty and the importance attached to the occasion.
Problems of motivation usually occur among people who experience problems in performing, although this does not mean that someone loses motivation by failing in an activity. In higher education, where students are often given more autonomy than high school, the performance and motivation problems may appear at the end of the semester, or on certain occasions such as performing when the person is faced with the situation of being assessed by his/her peers.
Attributional Theory (Weiner; Boruchovitch & Martini) has been used in this study as the theoretical framework to understand how situations of success and failure are interpreted by the person of the activity. According to Weiner (1991) these individual beliefs about the causes of determined situations, have an influence on motivation. People tend to assign causes to events, whether they achieve success or fail in their performance. In our day-to-day lives, we seek to find the cause for every situation we experience because these attributions concern making individual interpretations of a particular event. According to Weiner, “if one is rewarded for success at an easy task, then low personal ability is inferred by the receiver of the reward, and again motivation is decreased” (Weiner, 1991, p. 928). It is for the person to decide if the situation was one of success or failure and explains the results that have already been obtained by means of a causal sequence, which is illustrated in Figure 1.
Figure 1. Causal sequence of Attributional Theory (adapted from Schneider, 2011, p. 28).
Weiner (2004) pointed out that cultural diversity, as well as the influences of one’s surroundings, are essential aspects in causal attributions. In his research studies, the author notes that similar results can be interpreted in different ways, depending on the social context of the person and course of life he/she is leading. Weiner stated that “culture and personal history at times act as moderators between specified associations in the theory” (2004, p. 23). Thus, the location where motivation occurs is cited as a key factor in understanding the reasons for situations that are regarded as representing success or failure and the theory can be viewed from two perspectives – Intrapersonal and Interpersonal.
From an Intrapersonal attributional perspective, the person is seen as a scientist who seeks to understand his/her actions and surroundings by acting in accordance with his or her knowledge. The person involved in the action only takes account of their feelings with regard to a causal sequence which is triggered by an outcome and introduces into the attribution, the notions of the individual about success and failure and their previous experiences. Within this perspective, each attributed cause, when its dimensions are taken into account, has psychological consequences related to emotional aspects, as affectivity and expectations (Weiner, 1985). From an Interpersonal attributional perspective, the outcome that triggers a causal sequence is analysed and interpreted by other people like teachers, families or peers who observe the action. These people make a value judgement and decide whether the person is responsible or not for success or failure in a particular situation.
In this research, the analysis was conducted only from an Intrapersonal perspective of motivation, on how the attributions made by the students on an undergraduate course in music revealed their notions and beliefs.
Methodology
To conduct this research we decided to employ a non-probabilistic survey using a self-administered questionnaire for data collection. The ethical procedures were: a) contact with the coordinators; b) invitation to students; c) letter of informed consent signed by the participants. The coordinators of the courses authorized the data collection to take place during the intervals of classes, so that it would not disrupt them. Thus, the data was collected during three weeks. The students who accepted the ethical procedures answered questions regarding their musical career, including an experience of success in a public musical performance and another of failure (Babbie, 1999; Cohen, Manion, & Robinson, 2007). The questionnaire was compiled by adapting two questionnaires that had already been validated in Portugal (Sousa, Rosada, & Cabrita, 2008) and in the United States (Austin & Vispoel, 1992). The questionnaire subthemes were: a) personal details; b) context of the best performance; c) Attributional Theory scale for the best performance; d) context of the worst performance; e) Attributional Theory scale for the worst performance (see the full questionnaire in the Appendix). A pilot was conducted with 18 students to check the methodology. The data were collected one by one. No modifications were made in the questionnaire because the data collected pointed out that the wording and kind of questions asked indicated that we would collect the data according to the aim of the research.
A sample of 130 students2 was selected for this study from three federal universities in the State of Rio Grande do Sul: Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul (UFRGS); Federal University of Santa Maria (UFSM) and the Federal University of Pelotas (UFPel), with an average age of 24 years. In terms of gender, 83 (63.8%) were male and 47 (36.2%) were female. Most of the students were between the fifth and sixth semesters of their course (43.8%), whereas the students at the beginning or end of their course were 26.9% and 29.2%, respectively. The proportion of music students from each university was as follows: 20% from UFPel, 41.5% from UFRGS and 38.5% from UFSM. After this, procedures were carried out for the data collection and the data analysis, which included conducting a statistical analysis (descriptive, chi-square, and a t-test).
The data were collected from undergraduate students in instrumental and vocal music from the third semester onwards. The undergratuate course in instrumental music lasts for eight semesters and before being enrolled, the students are tested in their musical knowledge (theory) and instrument level (practice). During the undergraduate course they have individual lessons in their instrument as well as collective classes in history of music, harmony, counterpoint, analysis, musical aesthetics and chamber music, among other subjects.
Results
The data shows that the students remembered the audience very well (51.5%) and had a very clear memory of the rehearsals (66.0%), while 8% of the students could remember well the space where their best performance had occurred. With regard to the causal attributions for their best performance, in most cases, the students believed that the reasons for their success were due to subjective aspects. In Table 1, the most common causes cited by the undergraduate course students can be seen.
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Table 1. Causes cited by the students for the success situation.
In what was regarded as a situation of failure, the students were asked to think about what had been their worst performance when they answered the questionnaire. The data show that the students could remember with great clarity the audience on that day (45.4%) and could remember very clearly the space where this performance had taken place (53.1%). However, they could remember with little, or with no clarity, the rehearsal for this situation (43.8%) or else could remember it with average levels of clarity (26.9%).
The causal attributions for the most recurrent situations of failure were considered to be the following (see Table 2 for the full list): emotional aspects (60.8%), difficulty of the task (36.2%), lack of effort (30.8%), lack of skill or ability (27.7%) and lack of strategy (26.2%). The situations that were least cited were: influence of the family (3.1%) and influence of peers (4.6%).
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Table 2. Causes cited by the students for the failure situation.
On the basis of the descriptive analysis of the data, intersections were made between the causes and demographic variables. These were as follows: cause and sex, cause and semester, cause and performance (best or worst) and cause and musical instrument. Tables with the significant intersections and their analysis are shown below.
It can be seen that there is a balance between the sexes in the causes related to skill and effort for a situation of success. In contrast with other research studies (Assouline, Colangelo, Ihrig, & Forstadt, 2006; Faria, 1997), in the situation of public musical performance, there is no difference in this sample between males and females. The results show that the causes most cited for both sexes were ability, effort and persistence. As Table 3 shows, very few respondents mentioned other issues as causes for performing well.
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Table 3. Intersection between cause and sex.
The second significant intersection for the research was between the cause and the semester (see Table 4). Here there is a change of behaviour as students progress from one semester to the next.
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Table 4. Intersection between principal cause for the best situation and semester.
Until they reach the fourth semester, the students who are enrolled tend to attribute their success to skill, whereas the students enrolled between the fifth and sixth semesters are divided between the attributions of skill and effort. The students at the end of the course, enrolled from the seventh semester onwards, basically attributed their success to effort.
The t-test for paired samples was employed to check if there is any difference between the average number of hours devoted to studying in the case of the best and worst performances (see Table 5).
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Table 5. Difference between the average number of hours devoted to studying for best and worst performances.
In the case of the students who did well and obtained success, their commitment and dedication were much greater. But, in the cases regarded as failures, the students studied much less and only devoted about half the time compared to students who were regarded as successful. Thus, even if they attached great importance to the situation, there was some cause which prevented these students from being better prepared.
A t-test for the independent samples was used to check if there was a difference between the average number of hours studied and the recitals, with regard to the following variables: performance, likelihood of achieving the outcome, the importance of the public performance and difficulty. Tables with p-values are shown below.
The t-test was significant (p < .05) in the comparisons between the variables marked in bold in Table 6.
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Table 6. Difference between the average number of hours studied across the following variables.
A chi-square test was carried out to check if there was a link between the number of recitals given by the students and the performance (best or worst). It was possible to confirm that there is a link between the number of recitals given by the undergraduate course students and the perception that they have about their performances, as can be seen in Table 7.
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Table 7. Intersection between number of recitals and the best performance.
It can be observed that the more previous experiences the students had, the more they tended to achieve a better performance and be able to reach a level between very good and excellent.
Final remarks
In analysing the results, we noticed that the causal attributions for music are different from other subject areas. In contrast with what the literature shows (Ferreira et al., 2002; Martini & Del Prette, 2005; Mascarenhas, Almeida, & Barca, 2005), the students in our study thought that they themselves were responsible for their failures and attributed them to a subjective cause.
Our research showed that the main failure situation is attributed to emotional aspects, whereas in the case of success other causes appeared, including effort, skill and strategy (Table 1). There might be a large number of emotional aspects and this research study has not sought to map out the particular feelings for this situation. The research did not cover the question of why a specific answer is given, in a qualitative way. The sample of 130 may be considered low to some countries, but not for this region of Brazil, where there are not many undergraduate courses in music. The literature in this area (Papageorgi et al., 2007; Wilson & Roland, 2002) shows that one of the aspects is anxiety, which, if not well handled, has proved to affect performance in an adverse way. Other emotional aspects are addressed by the literature on musical performance but no specific research studies were found that dealt with the situation of public musical performances.
Another key cause in the motivation and success of the students is whether they are fully engaged with the process of learning. The students often do not recognize their success because it arises from playing works that are not in the established repertoire of their musical area and are not accepted or valued by society.
A large part of the traditional musical repertoire for each instrument can be found in numerous recordings which can allow students to be inspired by models that are not live perfomances. Currently, with advances in technology, it is possible to edit excerpts, manipulate the files and to make repeated recordings until the performer is satisfied with the performance. Thus, the students should be clear about their goals since people are motivated and guided by a desire to fulfil their goals and not by looking back on their limitations. As Hentschke, Santos, Pizatto, Vilela, and Cereser (2009) mentioned,
the model of expectation and value predicts that someone is more likely to be involved in activities that he/she believes he/she can undertake in a satisfactory way or rather, with regard to what can provide him/her with an expectation of success. (p. 89)
This research study shows that students who have more musical experience regard their performances as good or excellent, whereas those who have little experience do not view themselves in this way. Thus, the more the students perform, the more experience they will acquire and in time they will learn the best strategies for dealing with their emotions (Sichivitsa, 2007). However, it is not enough for the students to play in public every week if this practice does not reflect an autonomous thinking and bring benefits for them.
Attributional Theory does not provide the parameters for this assessment or what the students and teachers should take into account at the time of attributing a cause as the principal reason for a result. Before making a correct attribution and really managing to assess the situation that has occurred, it is necessary to lay down certain parameters and specific goals for each situation. It should be stressed that the theories of motivation should be intertwined because human behaviour is influenced by the memories, expectations and values of the person and of the society to which he or she belongs.
One of the aims of Attributional Theory (Weiner, 2000, 2004) is to find out the patterns of behaviour in different cultures and how different musicians react when faced with situations of success or failure. In his research, Weiner notes that similar results are interpreted in different ways. For this reason Weiner (2004) regards the location of the motivation as the main factor in understanding the causes attributed to what are regarded as situations of success or failure and explains the theory from two perspectives: Intrapersonal and Interpersonal. Weiner states that although these perspectives can be explained in separate ways, they are intertwined and interactive.
The attributions of causality both influence and are influenced by the motivation of individuals. The data reveal that the greater the importance that is attached to an activity, the more time is spent on preparing for it; in the same way students tend to be more engaged with musical activities and devote more time to them when they are aware of their skills and value them. Music students feel responsible for their results, which shows that they are engaged in their learning and seek to satisfy an inner need to achieve success.
The data of this research show that the undergraduate course students of instrumental music are emotionally influenced by their results, even when there is a greater likelihood of failure, 80.8% of the students answered in the questionnaire that the chances of failure were very high. In addition to the great difficulty of the task, most of the sample spent little time studying (around one month).
The existing literature in this area confirms that previous experiences of success and failure influenced the goals of performers for new performances (Austin & Vispoel, 1992). Before the musical performance can become a time of effective learning, teachers should help the students to analyse their learning projects and form strategies to enable them to overcome their fears and anxiety when in public (McPherson & McCormick, 2006). In Brazil this discussion is still necessary because many courses continue to adopt a traditional methodology, teacher centred, and more concerned with the content delivery than the actual learning outcomes. In other words it looks more prescriptive than seeking students’ autonomous thinking and practice. As shown in the literature on music education (Hewitt, 2004; McPherson, 2004), this joint practice is the most effective way of transforming teaching and making it significant, regardless of results. There should be evidence of the learning process and the outcomes should be assessed in accordance with real goals and be established together with students.
Appendix
ATTRIBUTIONAL THEORY QUESTIONNAIRE
PART 1
We would like you to think about the individual musical performance (solo playing, evening party or exams) where you think you achieved your best performance and which happened after your admission to the undergraduate course in music at the university.
Which is the degree of clarity that you remember of this presentation and the circumstances in which it happened?
People attending
1 2 3 4 5 None A lot
Rehearsals
1 2 3 4 5 None A lot
Venue
1 2 3 4 5 None A lot
How long did you prepare for this presentation? (Example: 1 week, 1 month, the day before, etc.)
How often did you study?
◯ 1 (one) day a week
◯ 2 (two) days a week
◯ 3 (three) days a week
◯ 4 (four) days a week
◯ 5 (five) days a week
◯ 6 (six) days a week
◯ 7 (seven) days a week
◯ Day before the presentation
What is the average number of weekly hours that you spent preparing for this presentation?
◯ 3-6 hours
◯ 6-9 hours
◯ 9-12 hours
◯ 12-15 hours
◯ 15-18 hours
◯ More hours? specify:_____________
How did you rate your performance in this presentation?
1 2 3 4 5
Bad Regular Good Very good Excellent
What was the likelihood that this result would be achieved based on your previous experience?
1 2 3 4 5
None A lot
What was the importance that you attributed to this presentation?
1 2 3 4 5
None A lot
What was the degree of difficulty that you might have considered in this presentation?
1 2 3 4 5
None A lot
What was the degree of satisfaction once you achieved the expected result?
1 2 3 4 5
None A lot
To which cause (or causes) do you attribute your good achievement in this presentation?
◯ Ability
◯ Effort
◯ Persistence
◯ Strategy
◯ Interest
◯ Luck
◯ Task Difficulty
◯ Family influence
◯ Teacher influence
◯ Peers influence
◯ Emotional aspects
◯ Others: speficy
f
PART2
We would like you to think about the individual musical performance (solo playing, evening party or exams) where you think you achieved your worst performance and which happened after your admission to the undergraduate course in music at the university.
Which is the degree of clarity that you remember of this presentation and the circumstances in which it happened?
People attending
1 2 3 4 5 None A lot
Rehearsals
1 2 3 4 5 None A lot
Venue
1 2 3 4 5 None A lot
How long did you prepare for this presentation? (Example: 1 week, 1 month, the day before, etc.)
How often did you study?
◯ 1 (one) day a week
◯ 2 (two) days a week
◯ 3 (three) days a week
◯ 4 (four) days a week
◯ 5 (five) days a week
◯ 6 (six) days a week
◯ 7 (seven) days a week
◯ Day before the presentation
What is the average number of weekly hours that you spent preparing for this presentation?
◯ 3-6 hours
◯ 6-9 hours
◯ 9-12 hours
◯ 12-15 hours
◯ 15-18 hours
◯ More hours? specify:_____________
How did you rate your performance in this presentation?
1 2 3 4 5
Bad Regular Good Very good Excellent
What was the likelihood that this result would be achieved based on your previous experience?
1 2 3 4 5
None A lot
What was the importance that you attributed to this presentation?
1 2 3 4 5
None A lot
What was the degree of difficulty that you might have considered in this presentation?
1 2 3 4 5
None A lot
What was the degree of satisfaction once you achieved the expected result?
1 2 3 4 5
None A lot
To which cause (or causes) do you attribute your bad achievement in this presentation?
◯ Lack of Ability
◯ Lack of Effort
◯ Lack of Persistence
◯ Lack of Strategy
◯ Lack of Interest
◯ Lack of Luck
◯ Task Difficulty
◯ Family influence
◯ Teacher influence
◯ Peers influence
◯ Emotional Aspects
◯ Others: specify
f
THANKS FOR YOUR PARTICIPATION!
Funding
This research received no specific grant from any funding agency in the public, commercial, or not-for-profit sectors.
Notes
1.
Research Group on Education and Professional Practice of Musicians and Music Teachers (FAPROM). See www.ufrgs.br/faprom
2.
The exact number of students enrolled was not divulged. The chairs of the courses gave us an approximate number of 200, adding up the three courses.
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