![[PDF]](/pb-assets/Icons/adobe-pdf-icon-1498649896243.png){kind=icon}
Abstract
This longitudinal study examined the psychosocial adjustment of adolescents who affiliate with antisocial crowds in a gang-impacted urban environment. We followed 405 adolescents (219 boys, 186 girls; average age of 11.51 years, SD = .61; 84% Latino, 9% Asian, and 7% other or unclassified) for one academic year. These youth attended a middle school located in an economically distressed neighborhood with documented high rates of gang violence. We assessed crowd membership with a structured focus group procedure. In addition, we administered a peer nomination inventory to assess aggression and social standing, obtained self-reports of depressive symptoms, and derived grade point averages (GPA) directly from school records. Adolescents used gang-related imagery to describe antisocial crowds in their school, referring to “cholos” and “taggers.” Membership in these crowds was associated with aggression and low GPA but, paradoxically, predicted small decreases in depression and increases in popularity over time. Taken together, our results highlight the complex role of affiliations with antisocial crowds in high-risk settings.
Keywords adolescence, crowds, gangs, peer relationships, depression, popularity
References
Section:
|
Aiken, L. S., West, S. G. (1991). Multiple regression: Testing and interpreting interactions. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. Google Scholar | |
|
Alleyne, E., Wood, J. L. (2014). Gang involvement: Social and environmental factors. Crime & Delinquency, 60, 547-568. Google Scholar | SAGE Journals | ISI | |
|
Ashmore, R. D., Deaux, K., McLaughlin-Volpe, T. (2004). An organizing framework for collective identity: Articulation and significance of multidimensionality. Psychological Bulletin, 130, 80-114. Google Scholar | Crossref | Medline | ISI | |
|
Bellmore, A., Villarreal, V. M., Ho, A. Y. (2011). Staying cool across the first year of middle school. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 40, 776-785. Google Scholar | Crossref | Medline | ISI | |
|
Boardman, J. D., Saint Onge, J. M. (2005). Neighborhoods and adolescent development. Children, Youth & Environments, 15, 138-164. Google Scholar | Medline | |
|
Brown, B. B. (1989). The role of peer groups in adolescents’ adjustment to secondary school. In Berndt, T. J., Ladd, G. W. (Eds.), Peer relationships in child development (pp. 188-216). New York, NY: John Wiley. Google Scholar | |
|
Brown, B. B., Eicher, S. A., Petrie, S. (1986). The importance of peer group (“crowd”) affiliation in adolescence. Journal of Adolescence, 9, 73-96. Google Scholar | Crossref | Medline | ISI | |
|
Brown, B. B., Klute, C. (2006). Friendships, cliques, and crowds. In Adams, G. R., Berzonsky, M. D. (Eds.), Blackwell handbook of adolescence (pp. 330-348). Oxford, UK: Blackwell. Google Scholar | Crossref | |
|
Brown, B. B., Mounts, N., Lamborn, S. D., Steinberg, L. (1993). Parenting practices and peer group affiliation in adolescence. Child Development, 64, 467-482. Google Scholar | Crossref | Medline | ISI | |
|
Brown, B. B., Von Bank, H., Steinberg, L. (2008). Smoke in the looking glass: Effects of discordance between self- and peer rated crowd affiliation on adolescent anxiety, depression and self-feelings. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 37, 1163-1177. Google Scholar | Crossref | ISI | |
|
California Department of Education . (2011). Academic Performance Index (API) Report. Retrieved from http://www.cde.ca.gov/ta/ac/ap/apireports.asp Google Scholar | |
|
Card, N. A., Stucky, B. D., Sawalani, G. M., Little, T. D. (2008). Direct and indirect aggression during childhood and adolescence: A meta-analytic review of gender differences, intercorrelations, and relations to maladjustment. Child Development, 79, 1185-1229. Google Scholar | Crossref | Medline | ISI | |
|
Cillessen, A. H. N., Marks, P. E. L. (2011). Conceptualizing and measuring popularity. In Cillessen, A. H. N., Schwartz, D., Mayeux, L. (Eds.), Popularity in the peer system (pp. 25-56). New York, NY: Guilford Press. Google Scholar | |
|
Cillessen, A. H. N., Mayeux, L. (2004). From censure to reinforcement: Developmental changes in the association between aggression and social status. Child Development, 75, 147-163. Google Scholar | Crossref | Medline | ISI | |
|
Clasen, D. R., Brown, B. B. (1985). The multidimensionality of peer pressure in adolescence. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 14, 451-468. Google Scholar | Crossref | Medline | ISI | |
|
Coie, J. D., Dodge, K. A., Coppotelli, H. (1982). Dimensions and types of social status: A cross-age perspective. Developmental Psychology, 18, 557-570. Google Scholar | Crossref | ISI | |
|
Craig, W. M., Vitaro, F., Gagnon, C., Tremblay, R. E. (2002). The road to gang membership: Characteristics of male gang and nongang members from ages 10 to 14. Social Development, 11, 53-68. Google Scholar | Crossref | ISI | |
|
Crick, N. R., Grotpeter, J. K. (1995). Relational aggression, gender, and social-psychological adjustment. Child Development, 66, 710-722. Google Scholar | Crossref | Medline | ISI | |
|
Cross, J. R., Fletcher, K. L. (2009). The challenge of adolescent crowd research: Defining the crowd. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 38, 747-764. Google Scholar | Crossref | Medline | ISI | |
|
Dishion, T., Nelson, S., Yasui, M. (2005). Predicting early adolescent gang involvement from middle school adaptation. Journal of Clinical Child & Adolescent Psychology, 34, 62-73. Google Scholar | Crossref | Medline | ISI | |
|
Downs, W. R., Rose, S. R. (1991). The relationship of adolescent peer groups to the incidence of psychosocial problems. Adolescence, 26, 473-492. Google Scholar | Medline | |
|
Dunphy, D. C. (1963). The Social structure of urban adolescent peer groups. Sociometry, 26, 230-246. Google Scholar | Crossref | |
|
Dunsworth, T., Hayeslip, D., Denver, M. (2011). Y2 final report: Evaluation of the Los Angeles Gang Reduction and Youth Development. Retrieved from http://www.urban.org/publications/412409.html Google Scholar | |
|
Farmer, T. W., Estell, D. B., Leung, M., Trott, H., Bishop, J., Cairns, B. D. (2003). Individual characteristics, early adolescent peer affiliations, and school dropout: An examination of aggressive and popular group types. Journal of School Psychology, 41, 217-232. Google Scholar | Crossref | ISI | |
|
Gilman, A. B., Hill, K. G., Hawkins, J. D., Howell, J. C., Kosterman, R. (2014). The developmental dynamics of joining a gang in adolescence: Patterns and predictors of gang membership. Journal of Research on Adoelscence, 24, 204-219. Google Scholar | Crossref | Medline | ISI | |
|
Gorman, A. H., Kim, J., Schimmelbusch, A. (2002). The attributes adolescents associate with peer popularity and teacher preference. Journal of School Psychology, 40, 143-165. Google Scholar | Crossref | ISI | |
|
Heaven, P. C. L., Ciarrochi, J., Vialle, W. (2008). Self-nominated peer crowds, school achievement, and psychological adjustment in adolescents: Longitudinal analysis. Personality and Individual Differences, 44, 977-988. Google Scholar | Crossref | ISI | |
|
Howell, J. C., Egley, A. (2005). Moving risk factors into developmental theories of gang membership. Youth Violence and Juvenile Justice, 3, 334-354. Google Scholar | SAGE Journals | |
|
Jonkmann, K., Trautwein, U., Lüdtke, O. (2009). Social dominance in adolescence: The moderating role of the classroom context and behavioral heterogeneity. Child Development, 80, 338-355. Google Scholar | Crossref | Medline | ISI | |
|
Kelly, B. M., Schwartz, D., Gorman, A. H., Nakamoto, J. (2008). Violent victimization in the community and children’s subsequent peer rejection: The mediating role of emotion dysregulation. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 36, 175-185. Google Scholar | ISI | |
|
Klein, M. W. (1995). The American street gang: Its nature, prevalence, and control. New York, NY: Oxford University Press. Google Scholar | |
|
Kovacs, M. (1985). The Children’s Depression Inventory. Psychopharmacology Bulletin, 21, 995-998. Google Scholar | Medline | |
|
Ladd, G. W., Oden, S. (1979). The relationship between peer acceptance and children’s ideas about helpfulness. Child Development, 50, 402-408. Google Scholar | Crossref | ISI | |
|
La Greca, A. M., Harrison, H. M. (2005). Adolescent peer relations, friendships, and romantic relationships: Do they predict social anxiety and depression? Journal of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology, 34, 49-61. Google Scholar | Crossref | Medline | ISI | |
|
La Greca, A. M., Prinstein, M., Fetter, M. D. (2001). Adolescent peer crowd affiliation: Linkages with health-risk behaviors and close friendships. Journal of Pediatric Psychology, 26, 131-143. Google Scholar | Crossref | Medline | ISI | |
|
Los Angeles Police Department . (2012). Citywide gang injunctions. Available from http://www.lapdonline.org Google Scholar | |
|
Los Angeles Police Department Gang and Narcotics Division . (2009). Citywide gang crime summary. Available from http://www.lapdonline.org Google Scholar | |
|
Madan, A., Mrug, S., Windle, M. (2011). Do delinquency and community violence exposure explain internalizing problems in early adolescent gang members? Journal of Adolescence, 34, 1093-1096. Google Scholar | Crossref | Medline | ISI | |
|
Masten, A. S., Roisman, G. I., Long, J. D., Burt, K. B., Obradovic, J., Riley, J. R., . . . Tellegen, A. (2005). Developmental cascades: Linking academic achievement and externalizing and internalizing symptoms over 20 years. Developmental Psychology, 41, 733-746. Google Scholar | Crossref | Medline | ISI | |
|
Matute-Bianchi, M. E. (1986). Ethnic identities and patterns of school success and failure among Mexican-descent and Japanese-American students in a California high school: An ethnographic analysis. American Journal of Education, 95, 233-255. Google Scholar | Crossref | ISI | |
|
Mayeux, L., Houser, J. J., Dyches, K. D. (2011). Social acceptance and popularity: Two distinct forms of peer status. In Cillessen, A. H. N., Schwartz, D., Mayeux, L. (Eds.), Popularity in the peer system (pp. 79-102). New York, NY: Guilford Press. Google Scholar | |
|
Michell, L. (1997). Loud, sad or bad: Young people’s perceptions of peer groups and smoking. Health Education Research, 12, 1-14. Google Scholar | Crossref | Medline | ISI | |
|
Miller, K. E., Farrell, M. P., Barnes, G. M., Melnick, M. J., Sabo, D. (2005). Gender/racial differences in jock identity, dating, and adolescent sexual risk. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 34, 123-136. Google Scholar | Crossref | Medline | ISI | |
|
Nolen-Hoeksema, S., Girgus, J. S. (1994). The emergence of gender differences in depression during adolescence. Psychological Bulletin, 115, 424-443. Google Scholar | Crossref | Medline | ISI | |
|
Prinstein, M. J., La Greca, A. M. (2002). Peer crowd affiliation and internalizing distress in childhood and adolescence: A longitudinal follow-back study. Journal of Research on Adolescence, 12, 325-351. Google Scholar | Crossref | ISI | |
|
Rodkin, P. C., Farmer, T. W., Pearl, R., Van Acker, R. (2000). Heterogeneity of popular boys: Antisocial and prosocial configurations. Developmental Psychology, 36, 14-24. Google Scholar | Crossref | Medline | ISI | |
|
Rose, A. J., Swenson, L. P., Waller, E. M. (2004). Overt and relational aggression and perceived popularity: Developmental differences in concurrent and prospective relations. Developmental Psychology, 40, 378-387. Google Scholar | Crossref | Medline | ISI | |
|
Sandstrom, M. J. (2011). The power of popularity: Influence processes in childhood and adolescence. In Cillessen, A. H. N., Schwartz, D., Mayeux, L. (Eds.), Popularity in the peer system (pp. 219-244). New York, NY: Guilford Press. Google Scholar | |
|
Schwartz, D., Gorman, A. H., Duong, M. T., Nakamoto, J. (2008). Peer relationships and academic achievement as interacting predictors of depressive symptoms during middle childhood. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 117, 289-299. Google Scholar | Crossref | Medline | ISI | |
|
Schwartz, D., Gorman, A. H., Nakamoto, J., McKay, T. (2006). Popularity, social acceptance, and aggression in adolescent peer groups: Links with academic performance and school attendance. Developmental Psychology, 42, 116-117. Google Scholar | Crossref | ISI | |
|
Schwartz, D., Kelly, B. M., Duong, M. T. (2013). Do academically-engaged adolescents experience social sanctions from the peer group? Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 42, 1319-1330. Google Scholar | Crossref | Medline | ISI | |
|
Schwartz, D., Proctor, L. J. (2000). Community violence exposure and children’s social adjustment in the school peer group: The mediating roles of emotion regulation and social cognition. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 68, 670-683. Google Scholar | Crossref | Medline | ISI | |
|
Steinberg, L., Silverberg, S. (1986). The vicissitudes of autonomy in early adolescence. Child Development, 57, 841-851. Google Scholar | Crossref | Medline | ISI | |
|
Stone, M. R., Brown, B. B. (1999). Identity claims and projections: Descriptions of self and crowds in secondary school. New Directions for Child and Adolescent Development, 84, 7-20. Google Scholar | Crossref | |
|
Sussman, S., Dent, C., McAdams, L., Stacy, A., Burton, D., Flay, B. (1994). Group self-identification and adolescent cigarette smoking: A 1-year prospective study. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 103, 576-580. Google Scholar | Crossref | Medline | ISI | |
|
Sussman, S., Dent, C. W., McCullar, W. J. (2000). Group self-identification as a prospective predictor of drug use and violence in high-risk youth. Psychology of Addictive Behaviors, 14, 192-196. Google Scholar | Crossref | Medline | ISI | |
|
Sussman, S., Pokhrel, P., Ashmore, R. D., Brown, B. B. (2007). Adolescent peer group identification and characteristics: A review of the literature. Addictive Behaviors, 32, 1602-1627. Google Scholar | Crossref | Medline | ISI | |
|
Sussman, S., Unger, J. B., Dent, C. W. (2004). Peer group self-identification among alternative high school youth: A predictor of their psychosocial functioning five years later. International Journal of Clinical and Health Psychology, 4, 9-25. Google Scholar | |
|
Tabachnick, B. G., Fidell, L. S. (2012). Using multivariate statistics (6th ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson. Google Scholar | |
|
Terry, R., Coie, J. D. (1991). A comparison of methods for defining sociometric status among children. Developmental Psychology, 27, 867-880. Google Scholar | Crossref | ISI | |
|
Thornberry, T. P., Krohn, M. D., Lizotte, A. J., Smith, C. A., Tobin, K. (2003). Gangs and delinquency in developmental perspective. New York, NY: Cambridge University Press. Google Scholar | |
|
Thornberry, T. P., Lizotte, A. J., Krohn, M. D., Smith, C. A., Porter, P. K. (2003). Causes and consequences of delinquency. In Thornberry, T. P., Krohn, M. D. (Eds.), Taking stock of delinquency: An overview of findings from contemporary longitudinal studies (pp. 11-15). New York, NY: Kluwer Academic. Google Scholar | Crossref | |
|
Urberg, K. A., Degirmencioglu, S. M., Tolson, J. M., Halliday-Scher, K. (2000). Adolescent social crowds: Measurement and relationship to friendships. Journal of Adolescent Research, 15, 427-445. Google Scholar | SAGE Journals | ISI | |
|
U.S. Census Bureau . (2010). American FactFinder. Panorama City, CA. Available from http://www.factfinder.census.gov Google Scholar | |
|
Wright, J. C., Giammarino, M., Parad, H. W. (1986). Social status in small groups: Individual–group similarity and the social “misfit.” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 50, 523-536. Google Scholar | Crossref | ISI | |
|
Zimmer-Gembeck, M. J., Geiger, T. C., Crick, N. R. (2005). Relational and physical aggression, prosocial behavior, and peer relations: Gender moderation and bidirectional associations. Journal of Early Adolescence, 25, 421-452. Google Scholar | SAGE Journals | ISI |
Author Biographies
David Schwartz is an associate professor of Psychology at the University of Southern California. His research interests concern peer relationships and academic adjustment with a particular emphasis on bully/victim problems.
Andrea Hopmeyer is a professor of Psychology at Occidental College. Her research focuses on adolescents’ and emerging adults’ peer relationships, academic adjustment, and loneliness with a particular emphasis on peer popularity and crowd affiliations.
Tana Luo is a doctoral student at the University of Southern California. Her research interests concern peer relationships and psychosocial adjustment during adolescence.
Alexandra C. Ross is a doctoral student at the University of Southern California. Her research focuses on social development and peer difficulties.
Jesse Fischer is a doctoral student at the University of Houston. His research is concerned with traumatic brain injury in children and adults, focusing on the neuropsychological deficits, treatment, and recovery after injury.
