![[PDF]](/pb-assets/Icons/adobe-pdf-icon-1498649896243.png){kind=icon}
Abstract
Recent research suggests that rumination may represent both a risk factor for and consequence of depression, especially among female samples. Nevertheless, few longitudinal studies have examined a reciprocal model of rumination and depression in early adolescence, just before rates of depression diverge by gender. The present study evaluated a cross-lagged path model of rumination and depression in a sample of 408 early adolescents. Gender moderation was also examined. Support was found for a longitudinal bidirectional model of rumination and depression but only among girls. For boys, increased rumination emerged as a consequence, not as a predictor, of depression symptoms. In early adolescence, rumination may be a greater risk factor for depression among girls than boys, whereas depression may be a significant vulnerability factor for increased rumination among both boys and girls. Why rumination may be more maladaptive for girls than boys is discussed within a psychosocial and developmental framework.
Keywords depression, gender, emotion regulation, risk/resilience, rumination
References
Section:
|
Abela, J. R. Z., Brozina, K., Haigh, E. P. (2002). An examination of the response styles theory of depression in third- and seventh-grade children: A short-term longitudinal study. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 30, 515-527. doi:10.1023/A:1019873015594 Google Scholar | Crossref | Medline | ISI | |
|
Abela, J. R. Z., Hankin, B. L. (2011). Rumination as a vulnerability factor to depression during the transition from early to middle adolescence: A multiwave longitudinal study. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 120, 259-271. doi:10.1037/a0022796 Google Scholar | Crossref | Medline | ISI | |
|
Abela, J. R. Z., Hankin, B. L., Sheshko, D. M., Fishman, M. B., Stolow, D. (2012). Multi-wave prospective examination of the stress-reactivity extension of response styles theory of depression in high-risk children and early adolescents. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 40, 277-287. doi:10.1007/s10802-011-9563-x Google Scholar | Crossref | Medline | ISI | |
|
Abela, J. R. Z., Parkinson, C., Stolow, D., Stars, C. (2009). A test of the integration of the hopelessness and response style theories of depression in middle adolescence. Journal of Clinical Child & Adolescent Psychology, 38, 354-364. doi:10.1037/a0022796 Google Scholar | Crossref | Medline | |
|
Abela, J. R. Z., Vanderbilt, E., Rochon, A. (2004). A test of the integration of the response styles and social support theories of depression in third and seventh grade children. Journal of Social & Clinical Psychology, 23, 653-674. doi:10.1521/jscp.23.5.653.50752 Google Scholar | Crossref | ISI | |
|
Beevers, C. G., Rohde, P., Stice, E., Nolen-Hoeksema, S. (2007). Recovery from major depressive disorder among female adolescents: A prospective test of the scar hypothesis. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 75, 888-900. doi:10.1037/0022-006X.75.6.888 Google Scholar | Crossref | Medline | ISI | |
|
Burwell, R. A., Shirk, S. R. (2007). Subtypes of rumination in adolescence: Associations between brooding, reflection, depressive symptoms, and coping. Journal of Clinical Child & Adolescent Psychology, 36, 56-65. doi:10.1080/15374410709336568 Google Scholar | Crossref | Medline | ISI | |
|
Calvete, E. (2011). Temporal relationships between inferential style and depressive symptoms in adolescents. International Journal of Cognitive Therapy, 4, 436-455. doi:10.1521/ijct.2011.4.4.438 Google Scholar | Crossref | ISI | |
|
Calvete, E., Orue, I., Hankin, B. L. (2013). Transactional relationships among cognitive vulnerabilities, stressors, and depressive symptoms in adolescence. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 41, 399-410. doi:10.1007/s10802-012-9691-y Google Scholar | Crossref | Medline | ISI | |
|
Calvete, E., Orue, I., Hankin, B. L. (2015). Cross-lagged associations among ruminative response style, stressors, and depressive symptoms in adolescents. Journal of Social & Clinical Psychology, 34, 203-220. doi:10.1521/jscp.2015.34.3.203 Google Scholar | Crossref | |
|
Cole, D. A., Ciesla, J. A., Dallaire, D. H., Jacquez, F. M., Pineda, A. Q., LaGrange, B., . . . Felton, J. W. (2008). Emergence of attributional style and its relation to depressive symptoms. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 117, 16-31. doi:10.1037/0021-843X.117.1.16 Google Scholar | Crossref | Medline | ISI | |
|
Cox, B. J., Enns, M. W., Taylor, S. (2001). The effect of rumination as a mediator of elevated anxiety sensitivity in major depression. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 25, 525-534. doi:10.1023/A:1005580518671 Google Scholar | Crossref | ISI | |
|
Cox, S., Funasaki, K., Smith, L., Mezulis, A. H. (2012). A prospective study of brooding and reflection as moderators of the relationship between stress and depressive symptoms in adolescence. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 36, 290-299. doi:10.1007/s10608-011-9373-z Google Scholar | Crossref | |
|
Cox, S. J., Mezulis, A. H., Hyde, J. S. (2010). The influence of child gender role and maternal feedback to child stress on the emergence of the gender difference in depressive rumination in adolescence. Developmental Psychology, 46(4), 842-852. doi:10.1037/a0019813 Google Scholar | Crossref | Medline | |
|
Crick, N. R., Zahn-Waxler, C. (2003). The development of psychopathology in females and males: Current progress and future challenges. Development and Psychopathology, 15, 719-742. doi:10.1017/S095457940300035X Google Scholar | Crossref | Medline | ISI | |
|
Cyranowski, J., Frank, E., Young, E., Shear, K. (2000). Adolescent onset of the gender difference in lifetime rates of major depression: A theoretical model. Archives of General Psychiatry, 57, 21-27. doi:10.1001/archpsyc.57.1.21 Google Scholar | Crossref | Medline | |
|
David-Ferdon, C., Kaslow, N. J. (2008). Evidence-based psychosocial treatments for child and adolescent depression. Journal of Clinical Child & Adolescent Psychology, 37, 62-104. doi:10.1080/15374410701817865 Google Scholar | Crossref | Medline | ISI | |
|
Davis, R. N., Nolen-Hoeksema, S. (2000). Cognitive inflexibility among ruminators and nonruminators. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 24, 699-711. doi:10.1023/A:1005591412406 Google Scholar | Crossref | ISI | |
|
Finch, A. J., Saylor, C. F., Edwards, G. L. (1985). Children’s Depression Inventory: Sex and grade norms for normal children. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 53, 424-425. doi:10.1037/0022-006X.53.3.424 Google Scholar | Crossref | Medline | ISI | |
|
Finch, A. J., Saylor, C. F., Edwards, G. L., McIntosh, J. A. (1987). Children’s Depression Inventory: Reliability over repeated administrations. Journal of Clinical Child Psychology, 16, 339-341. doi:10.1207/s15374424jccp1604_7 Google Scholar | Crossref | |
|
Fivush, R. (1993). Emotional content of parent-child conversations about the past. In Nelson, C. A. (Ed.), The Minnesota symposium on child psychology: Memory and affect in development (pp. 39-77). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum. Google Scholar | |
|
Fivush, R., Brotman, M. A., Buckner, J. P., Goodman, S. H. (2000). Gender differences in parent-child emotion narratives. Sex Roles, 42, 233-253. doi:10.1023/A:1007091207068 Google Scholar | Crossref | ISI | |
|
Fredrickson, B. L., Roberts, T. A. (1997). Objectification theory. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 21, 173-206. doi:10.1111/j.1471-6402.1997.tb00108.x Google Scholar | SAGE Journals | ISI | |
|
Garber, J., Keiley, M. K., Martin, N. C. (2002). Developmental trajectories of adolescents’ depressive symptoms: Predictors of change. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 70, 79-95. doi:10.1037/0022-006X.70.1.79 Google Scholar | Crossref | Medline | ISI | |
|
Gillham, J. E., Chaplin, T. M. (2011). Preventing girls’ depression during the transition to adolescence. In Strauman, T. J., Costanzo, P. R., Garber, J. (Eds.), Preventing depression among adolescent girls: From basic research to effective intervention (pp. 275-317). New York, NY: Guilford Press. Google Scholar | |
|
Gillham, J. E., Reivich, K. J., Brunwasser, S. M., Freres, D. R., Chajon, N. D., Kash-MacDonald, V. M., Seligman, M. E. (2012). Evaluation of a group cognitive-behavioral depression prevention program for young adolescents: A randomized effectiveness trial. Journal of Clinical Child & Adolescent Psychology, 41, 621-639. doi:10.1080/15374416.2012.706517 Google Scholar | Crossref | Medline | |
|
Gillham, J. E., Vélez, C. E., Krause, E. D., Chaplin, T. M. (2017). Building girls’ resiliency during the transition to adolescence: Development and randomized effectiveness evaluation of a pilot program. Manuscript in preparation. Google Scholar | |
|
Hammen, C. (1991). Generation of stress in the course of unipolar depression. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 100, 555-561. Google Scholar | Crossref | Medline | ISI | |
|
Hankin, B. L. (2008). Response styles theory and symptom specificity in adolescents: A multi-wave prospective study. Journal of Clinical Child & Adolescent Psychology, 37, 701-713. doi:10.1080/15374410802359627 Google Scholar | Crossref | Medline | |
|
Hankin, B. L. (2009). Development of sex differences in depressive and co-occurring anxious symptoms during adolescence: Descriptive trajectories and potential explanations in a multi-wave prospective study. Journal of Clinical Child & Adolescent Psychology, 38, 460-472. doi:10.1080/15374410902976288 Google Scholar | Crossref | Medline | ISI | |
|
Hankin, B. L., Abramson, L. Y. (2001). Development of gender differences in depression: An elaborated cognitive vulnerability-transactional stress theory. Psychological Bulletin, 127, 773-796. doi:10.1037/0033-2909.127.6.773 Google Scholar | Crossref | Medline | ISI | |
|
Hankin, B. L., Abramson, L. Y., Moffitt, T. E., Silva, P. A., McGee, R., Angell, K. E. (1998). Development of depression from preadolescence to young adulthood: Emerging gender differences in a 10-year longitudinal study. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 107, 128-140. doi:10.1037/0021-843X.107.1.128 Google Scholar | Crossref | Medline | ISI | |
|
Helgeson, V. S. (1994). Relation of agency and communion to well-being: Evidence and potential explanations. Psychological Bulletin, 116, 412-428. doi:10.1037/0033-2909.116.3.412 Google Scholar | Crossref | ISI | |
|
Hines, M. (2011). Gender development and the human brain. Annual Review of Neuroscience, 34, 69-88. doi:10.1146/annurev-neuro-061010-113654 Google Scholar | Crossref | Medline | ISI | |
|
Hyde, J. S., Mezulis, A. H., Abramson, L. Y. (2008). The ABCs of depression: Integrating affective, biological, and cognitive models to explain the emergence of the gender difference in depression. Psychological Review, 115, 291-313. doi:10.1037/0033-295X.115.2.291 Google Scholar | Crossref | Medline | ISI | |
|
IBM Corp . (2011). Released 2011. IBM SPSS Statistics for Windows, Version 20.0. Armonk, NY: IBM Corp. Google Scholar | |
|
Jose, P. E., Brown, I. (2008). When does the gender difference in rumination begin? gender and age differences in the use of rumination by adolescents. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 37, 180-192. doi:10.1007/s10964-006-9166-y Google Scholar | Crossref | ISI | |
|
Kessler, R. C., McGonagle, K. A., Swartz, M., Blazer, D. G. (1993). Sex and depression in the National Comorbidity Survey. I: Lifetime prevalence, chronicity and recurrence. Journal of Affective Disorders, 29, 85-96. doi:10.1016/0165-0327(93)90026-G Google Scholar | Crossref | Medline | ISI | |
|
Kim-Cohen, J., Caspi, A., Moffitt, T. E., Harrington, H., Milne, B. J., Poulton, R. (2003). Prior juvenile diagnoses in adults with mental disorder: Developmental follow-back of a prospective-longitudinal cohort. Archives of General Psychiatry, 60, 709-717. doi:10.1001/archpsyc.60.7.709 Google Scholar | Crossref | Medline | |
|
Kort-Butler, L. (2009). Coping styles and sex differences in depressive symptoms and delinquent behavior. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 38, 122-136. doi:10.1007/s10964-008-9291-x Google Scholar | Crossref | Medline | ISI | |
|
Kovacs, M. (1985). The Children’s Depression Inventory (CDI). Psychopharmacology Bulletin, 21, 995-998. Google Scholar | Medline | |
|
Kovacs, M. (2001). Children’s Depression Inventory manual. North Tonawanda, NY: Multi-Health Systems. Google Scholar | |
|
Kresanov, K., Tuominen, J., Piha, J., Almqvist, F. (1998). Validity of child psychiatric screening methods. European Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 7, 85-95. doi:10.1007/s007870050052 Google Scholar | Crossref | Medline | ISI | |
|
Lewinsohn, P. M., Steinmetz, J. L., Larson, D. W., Franklin, J. (1981). Depression-related cognitions: Antecedent or consequence? Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 90, 213-219. doi:10.1037/0021-843X.90.3.213 Google Scholar | Crossref | Medline | ISI | |
|
Liu, R. T., Alloy, L. B. (2010). Stress generation in depression: A systematic review of the empirical literature and recommendations for future study. Clinical Psychology Review, 30, 582-593. doi:10.1016/j.cpr.2010.04.010 Google Scholar | Crossref | Medline | ISI | |
|
Lopez, C. M., Driscoll, K. A., Kistner, J. A. (2009). Sex differences and response styles: Subtypes of rumination and associations with depressive symptoms. Journal of Clinical Child & Adolescent Psychology, 38, 27-35. doi:10.1080/15374410802575412 Google Scholar | Crossref | Medline | |
|
Masten, A. S., Roisman, G. I., Long, J. D., Burt, K. B., Obradović, J., Riley, J. R., . . . Tellegen, A. (2005). Developmental cascades: Linking academic achievement and externalizing and internalizing symptoms over 20 years. Developmental Psychology, 41(5), 733-746. doi:10.1037/0012-1649.41.5.733 Google Scholar | Crossref | Medline | ISI | |
|
McCarty, C. A., Stoep, A. V., McCauley, E. (2007). Cognitive features associated with depressive symptoms in adolescence: Directionality and specificity. Journal of Clinical Child & Adolescent Psychology, 36, 147-158. doi:10.1080/15374410701274926 Google Scholar | Crossref | Medline | ISI | |
|
Mezulis, A. H., Abramson, L. Y., Hyde, J. S. (2002). Domain specificity of gender differences in rumination. Journal of Cognitive Psychotherapy, 16, 421-434. doi:10.1891/088983902780935614 Google Scholar | Crossref | |
|
Mezulis, A. H., Funasaki, K. S., Charbonneau, A. M., Hyde, J. S. (2010). Gender differences in the cognitive vulnerability-stress model of depression in the transition to adolescence. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 34, 501-513. doi:10.1007/s10608-009-9281-7 Google Scholar | Crossref | ISI | |
|
Moberly, N. J., Watkins, E. R. (2008). Ruminative self-focus and negative affect: An experience sampling study. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 117, 314-323. doi:10.1037/0021-843X.117.2.314 Google Scholar | Crossref | Medline | ISI | |
|
Muthén, L. K., Muthén, B. O. (1998-2015). Mplus user’s guide (7th ed.). Los Angeles, CA: Author. Google Scholar | |
|
Nolen-Hoeksema, S. (1991). Responses to depression and their effects on the duration of depressive episodes. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 100, 569-582. doi:10.1037/0021-843X.100.4.569 Google Scholar | Crossref | Medline | ISI | |
|
Nolen-Hoeksema, S. (2012). Emotion regulation and psychopathology: The role of gender. Annual Review of Clinical Psychology, 8, 61-87. doi:10.1146/annurev-clinpsy-032511-143109 Google Scholar | Crossref | |
|
Nolen-Hoeksema, S., Girgus, J. S. (1994). The emergence of gender differences in depression during adolescence. Psychological Bulletin, 115, 424-443. doi:10.1037/0033-2909.115.3.424 Google Scholar | Crossref | Medline | ISI | |
|
Nolen-Hoeksema, S., Girgus, J. S., Seligman, M. E. (1992). Predictors and consequences of childhood depressive symptoms: A 5-year longitudinal study. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 101, 405-422. doi:10.1037/0021-843X.101.3.405 Google Scholar | Crossref | Medline | ISI | |
|
Nolen-Hoeksema, S., Morrow, J. (1991). A prospective study of depression and posttraumatic stress symptoms after a natural disaster: The 1989 Loma Prieta earthquake. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 61, 115-121. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.61.1.115 Google Scholar | Crossref | Medline | ISI | |
|
Nolen-Hoeksema, S., Stice, E., Wade, E., Bohon, C. (2007). Reciprocal relations between rumination and bulimic, substance abuse, and depressive symptoms in female adolescents. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 116, 198-207. doi:10.1037/0021-843X.116.1.198 Google Scholar | Crossref | Medline | ISI | |
|
Reynolds, W. M. (2002). Reynolds Adolescent Depression Scale (2nd ed.). Odessa, FL: Psychological Assessment Resources. Google Scholar | |
|
Rohde, P., Lewinsohn, P. M., Seeley, J. R. (1994). Are people changed by the experience of having an episode of depression? A further test of the scar hypothesis. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 99, 264-271. doi:10.1037/0021-843X.99.3.264 Google Scholar | Crossref | |
|
Rood, L., Roelofs, J., Bögels, S. M., Nolen-Hoeksema, S., Schouten, E. (2009). The influence of emotion-focused rumination and distraction on depressive symptoms in non-clinical youth: A meta-analytic review. Clinical Psychology Review, 29, 607-616. doi:10.1016/j.cpr.2009.07.001 Google Scholar | Crossref | Medline | ISI | |
|
Rutter, M., Kim-Cohen, J., Maughan, B. (2006). Continuities and discontinuities in psychopathology between childhood and adult life. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 47(3-4), 276-295. doi:10.1111/j.1469-7610.2006.01614.x Google Scholar | Crossref | Medline | ISI | |
|
Saylor, C. F., Finch, A. J., Spirito, A., Bennett, B. (1984). The Children’s Depression Inventory: A systematic evaluation of psychometric properties. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 52, 955-967. doi:10.1037/0022-006X.52.6.955 Google Scholar | Crossref | Medline | ISI | |
|
Schwartz, J. A. J., Koenig, L. J. (1996). Response styles and negative affect among adolescents. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 20, 13-36. doi:10.1007/BF02229241 Google Scholar | Crossref | ISI | |
|
Stewart, S. M., Kennard, B. D., Lee, P. W. H., Hughes, C. W., Mayes, T. L., Emslie, G. J., Lewinsohn, P. M. (2004). A cross-cultural investigation of cognitions and depressive symptoms in adolescents. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 113, 248-257. doi:10.1037/0021-843X.113.2.248 Google Scholar | Crossref | Medline | |
|
Treynor, W., Gonzalez, R., Nolen-Hoeksema, S. (2003). Rumination reconsidered: A psychometric analysis. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 27, 247-259. doi:10.1023/A:1023910315561 Google Scholar | Crossref | ISI | |
|
Twenge, J. M., Nolen-Hoeksema, S. (2002). Age, gender, race, socioeconomic status, and birth cohort difference on the Children’s Depression Inventory: A meta-analysis. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 111, 578-588. doi:10.1037/0021-843X.111.4.578 Google Scholar | Crossref | Medline | ISI | |
|
Vélez, C. E., Wolchik, S. A., Tein, J. Y., Sandler, I. (2011). Protecting children from the consequences of divorce: A longitudinal study of the effects of parenting on children’s coping processes. Child Development, 82, 244-257. doi:10.1111/j.1467-8624.2010.01553.x Google Scholar | Crossref | Medline | ISI | |
|
Verstraeten, K., Vasey, M. W., Raes, F., Bijttebier, P. (2010). Brooding and reflection as components of rumination in late childhood. Personality and Individual Differences, 48, 367-372. doi:10.1016/j.paid.2009.11.001 Google Scholar | Crossref | |
|
von Hippel, W., Vasey, M. W., Gonda, T., Stern, T. (2008). Executive function deficits, rumination and late-onset depressive symptoms in older adults. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 32(4), 474-487. doi:10.1007/s10608-006-9034-9 Google Scholar | Crossref | |
|
Watkins, E. (2004). Adaptive and maladaptive ruminative self-focus during emotional processing. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 42, 1037-1052. doi:10.1016/j.brat.2004.01.009 Google Scholar | Crossref | Medline | ISI | |
|
Winer, B. F. (1971). Statistical principles in experimental design (2nd ed.). New York, NY: McGraw-Hill. Google Scholar | |
|
Zahn-Waxler, C., Shirtcliff, E. A., Marceau, K. (2008). Disorders of childhood and adolescence: Gender and psychopathology. Annual Review of Clinical Psychology, 4, 275-303. doi:10.1146/annurev.clinpsy.3.022806.091358 Google Scholar | Crossref | Medline | ISI | |
|
Zeiss, A. M., Lewinsohn, P. M. (1988). Enduring deficits after remissions of depression: A test of the scar hypothesis. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 26, 151-158. doi:10.1016/0005-7967(88)90114-3 Google Scholar | Crossref | Medline |
Author Biographies
Elizabeth D. Krause is a visiting assistant professor in the Department of Psychology at Swarthmore College, a lecturer at the University of Pennsylvania, and director of Women’s Wellness Solutions LLC, a clinical practice specializing in women’s mental health and wellness. She received her doctoral degree in clinical psychology from Duke University. Her research interests focus on the role of gender, risk, and protective factors in the development and maintenance of internalizing disorders, and the development and evaluation of resiliency programs for girls and women.
Clorinda E. Vélez is an assistant professor in the Department of Psychology at Quinnipiac University. She completed her doctoral training in clinical psychology at Arizona State University, and her postdoctoral training at the University of Delaware and Swarthmore College. Her research has focused on risk and protective factors explaining variability in youths’ responses to stress, parenting as a protective resource for youth, and the socialization of youths’ coping efforts.
Rebecca Woo received her bachelor’s degree from Swarthmore College and is now pursuing a doctorate at the University of Texas at Austin in School Psychology. Her current research interests include developing therapist competence and adherence to evidence-based practice and implementing school-based interventions for behavioral and mental health concerns.
Brittany Hoffmann received her bachelor’s degree in psychology from the University of Pennsylvania with a minor in Urban Education. She has worked in several educational nonprofit organizations in the New Haven area, including an after-school program to improve youth literacy and a summer program to maximize academic opportunities for disadvantaged students. She currently works as a private tutor and continues to work with students of diverse backgrounds. Her research interests include youth coping strategies and the influence of those strategies on academic achievement.
Derek R. Freres recently worked as the research director and senior IT administrator at the Positive Psychology Center at the University of Pennsylvania. He received a BA in psychology and an MA in communications from the University of Pennsylvania. His research interests include quantitative methods, advanced statistical analysis, and depression prevention in adolescents.
Rachel M. Abenavoli received her bachelor’s degree from Fairfield University and is currently a doctoral student in the Department of Human Development and Family Studies at Pennsylvania State University. Her research focuses on school-based and family-based intervention approaches to the promotion of social and emotional competence in children and adolescents.
Jane E. Gillham is a clinical psychologist, educator, and researcher whose work focuses on social and emotional well-being in children and adolescents. She is an associate professor of psychology at Swarthmore College and co-director of the University of Pennsylvania’s Penn Resiliency Project. For the past 20 years, much of her work has focused on developing, evaluating, and disseminating programs that are designed to promote well-being in children, adolescents, and their families.
