The Matthew Matilda Effect in Science
Abstract
Recent work has brought to light so many cases, historical and contemporary, of women scientists who have been ignored, denied credit or otherwise dropped from sight that a sex-linked phenomenon seems to exist, as has been documented to be the case in other fields, such as medicine, art history and literary criticism. Since this systematic bias in scientific information and recognition practices fits the second half of Matthew 13:12 in the Bible, which refers to the under-recognition accorded to those who have little to start with, it is suggested that sociologists of science and knowledge can add to the 'Matthew Effect', made famous by Robert K. Merton in 1968, the 'Matilda Effect', named for the American suffragist and feminist critic Matilda J. Gage of New York, who in the late nineteenth century both experienced and articulated this phenomenon. Calling attention to her and this age-old tendency may prod future scholars to include other such 'Matildas' and thus to write a better, because more comprehensive, history and sociology of science.
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An earlier version of this paper was presented at Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University in January 1990. I thank Joy Harvey, Mordechai Feingold, Sara Tjossem and Nadine Weidman.
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2.
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3.
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4.
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14.
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15.
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17.
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18.
18. Otto Hahn, My Life: The Autobiography of a Scientist, trans. Ernst Kaiser and Eithre Wilkins (New York: Herder & Herder, 1970), 199. For more on Meitner's award, see `Honor Dr. Meitner for Work on Atom', New York Times (10 February 1946), 13. She also lost credit for her 1922 discovery of what was later named the `Auger Effect' for Pierre Auger's 1925-26 papers: Richard Sietmann, `False Attribution, A Female Physicist's Fate', Physics Bulletin, Vol. 39 (1988), 316-17.
19.
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20.
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21.
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22.
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23.
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24.
24. Rossiter, op. cit. note 13, 112; `Directory of Scientists Will Now List Women', New York Times (23 November 1971), 7. Only 2% of its `starred' scientists, a practice stopped in 1943, had been women (Rossiter, op. cit. note 13, 291).
25.
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26.
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27.
27. Anne Roe, The Making of a Scientist (New York: Dodd, Mead, 1953), 22-25. Some, for example, refused to have women graduate students: `Women in Science', Personnel and Guidance Journal, Vol. 44 (1966), 784-87.
28.
28. R.H. Knapp and H.B. Goodrich, Origins of American Scientists (Chicago, IL: The University of Chicago Press, 1952), 20 and Appendix 2. Their figure of 2% is far lower than the proportion of science doctorates actually awarded to women in the 1920s and 1930s, especially since psychology was included in the study. It is particularly odd, because women in the AMS held doctorates more often than the men. For another example of the deliberate omission of women's colleges, see Research and Teaching in the Liberal Arts College: A Report (n.p.: 1959), 15, which, despite its title, omitted all colleges for women, even though Mount Holyoke College long topped the list for women by a wide margin: see John R. Sampey, `Chemical Research in Liberal Arts Colleges, 1952-59', Journal of Chemical Education, Vol. 37 (1960), 316; Alfred E. Hall, `Baccalaureate Origins of Doctorate Recipients in Chemistry: 1920-80', ibid., Vol. 62 (1985), 407; Mary L. Sherrill, `Group Research in a Small Department', ibid., Vol. 34 (1957), 466 and 468; and Emma Perry Carr, `Research in a Liberal Arts College', ibid., 467-70.
29.
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30.
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31.
31. Sara Delamont, `Three Blind Spots? A Comment on the Sociology of Science by a Puzzled Outsider', Social Studies of Science, Vol. 17 (1987), 166-67; but see also Hilary F. Burrage, `Women University Teachers of Natural Science, 1971-72: An Empirical Survey', ibid., Vol. 13 (1983), 147-60.
32.
32. Joanna Russ, How To Suppress Women's Writing (Austin, TX: University of Texas Press, 1983). See also Cynthia Ozick, `We Are the Crazy Lady and Other Feisty Feminist Fables', Ms., Vol. 1 (Spring 1972), 40-44.
33.
33. Berenice Carroll, `The Politics of Originality; Women in the Class System of the Intellect', Journal of Women's History, Vol. 2, No. 2 (Fall 1990), 136-63.
34.
34. Robert K. Merton, `The Matthew Effect in Science, II: Cumulative Advantage and the Symbolism of Intellectual Property', Isis, Vol. 79 (1988), 607n2, which admits Zuckerman should have been a co-author. (I thank Mordechai Feingold for calling this article to my attention.)
35.
35. See entry for Zuckerman in Who's Who in America, No. 46 (1990-91), 3591.
36.
36. See Ruth Hoppin, Priscilla: Author of the Epistle to the Hebrews (Jericho, NY: Exposition Press, 1969).
37.
37. I thank Sheila Jasanoff for suggesting Martha. For story on Martha, see Luke 10:38-42. Rudyard Kipling, `The Sons of Martha', in Burton E. Stevenson, The Home Book of Verse (New York: H. Holt, 1949), I, 3072-73. See also Vasant A. Shahane, Rudyard Kipling, Activist and Artist (Carbondale, IL: Southern Illinois University Press, 1973), 117-18.
38.
38. Lillian Gilbreth, `The Daughter of Martha', Program, Society of Women Engineers Banquet, New York City, 8 November 1961, 4-9, copy in Lillian Gilbreth Papers, Special Collections, Purdue University Library.
39.
39. See entry for Gage in Edward T. James et al. (eds), Notable American Women, 1607-1950 (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1971), II, 4-6, and Sally Roesch Wagner, `Introduction', in Matilda Joslyn Gage, Woman, Church & State (Watertown, MA: Persephone Press, 1980, reprint of 1893 text), xv-xxxix. Gage died in Chicago in 1898 at the home of her daughter, whose husband later wrote the Wizard of Oz. I thank Ruth Oldenziel for a copy of Matilda Gage, Woman as Inventor, Woman Suffrage Tract No. 1 (Fayetteville, NY, 1870).
40.
40. On the Women's Bible and the group who worked on it, see Elisabeth Schüssler Fiorenza, In Memory of Her (New York: Crossroad Publishing Co., 1983), 7-14; Barbara Brown Zikmund, `Feminist Consciousness in Historical Perspective', in Letty M. Russell, Feminist Interpretations of the Bible (Philadelphia, PA: Westminster Press, 1985), 23-25; and Barbara J. MacHaffie, Her Story: Women in Christian Tradition (Philadelphia, PA: Fortress Press, 1986), 113-16, as well as The Woman's Bible, Parts I and II (New York: Arno Press reprint, 1972).
41.
41. Dale Spender, Women of Ideas and What Men Have Done to Them (London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1982), 252.
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- A Rare Case of Gender Parity in Academia
- Citation practices in tourism research: Toward a gender conscientious ...
- Measuring dissatisfaction with coauthorship: An empirical approach bas...
- Death of the Salesman but Not the Sales Force: How Interested Promotio...
- Double-blind reviewing and gender biases at EvoLang conferences: An up...
- Gender Disparities in Invited Commentary Authorship in 2459 Medical Jo...
- European Research Council: excellence and leadership over time from a ...
- Women's experiences in early physical anthropology
- Paul Samuelson, gender bias and discrimination
- Complexities, challenges and implications of collaborative work within...
- A plea for minimally biased naturalistic philosophy
- Making the invisible hyper-visible: Knowledge production and the gende...
- Male principal investigators (almost) don’t publish with women in ecol...
- Unravelling the gender productivity gap in science: a meta-analytical ...
- Gender Imbalance at Academic Plastic Surgery Meetings
- The contribution and recognition of women in the field of mammalogy
- Underrepresentation of women in Canadian Journal of Anesthesia publica...
- The unintended consequences of performance-based incentives on inequal...
- New managerialism in the academy: Gender bias and precarity
- Universités : les politiques d’égalité entre femmes et hommes à l’heur...
- Time’s up! Feminist theory and activism meets organization studies
- Social Capital in Transition(s) to Early Adulthood: A Longitudinal and...
- Exploring the YouTube science communication gender gap: A sentiment an...
- Who Counts as a Notable Sociologist on Wikipedia? Gender, Race, and th...
- By Count and Diagram, Is the Indexicality of Spheres Diverse Enough?
- Merton (1968): The Matthew Effect in Science
- Snakes and Ladders
- Introduction
- Women from Diverse Backgrounds in the Science, Technology, Engineering...
- Women in Translational Medicine: Tools to Break the Glass Ceiling
- Steps to improve gender diversity in coastal geoscience and engineerin...
- Perceived health and work-environment related problems and associated ...
- Sharing Peace Engineering with US-based Minority Students, through the...
- Gender Gap in Professional Entomology: Women Are Underrepresented in A...
- The Mathilde Krim Effect as a Way to Overcome the Matilda Effect
- Historical Geography, feminist research and the gender politics of the...
- Gender Inequity during the Ph.D.: Females in the Life Sciences Benefit...
- Accelerated Researchers: Psychosocial Risks in Gendered Institutions i...
- Scientists making a difference, editors not so much
- Gendered Citation Patterns across Political Science and Social Science...
- Gendered references in organization studies
- Gender Disparities in Medical Student Research Awards: A 13-Year Study...
- Inequality and collaboration patterns in Canadian nanotechnology: impl...
- Cumulative disadvantage
- Comparing gender discrimination and inequality in indie and traditiona...
- The Ethos of Science and Its Correlates: An Empirical Analysis of Scie...
- What's in a number? How (and why) measuring research productivity in d...
- Progress and Prospects in Gender Visibility at SMBE Annual Meetings
- Quel genre de savoirs? Epistémologies féministes et (dé)construction d...
- Scientific and Medical Careers: Gender and Diversity
- The Posthumous Nobel Prize in Chemistry. Volume 2. Ladies in Waiting f...
- When can academic researchers rest? An event history analysis on resea...
- Gender and the “Great Man”: Recovering Philosophy's “Wives of the Cano...
- Le français, langue seconde ? De l'évolution des lieux et langues de p...
- Preface
- Research Funding and Performance of Academic Researchers in South Kore...
- Historiography of science and technology in focus. A discussion with P...
- Women are underrepresented in computational biology: An analysis of th...
- Introduction: Toward More Inclusive and Comparative Perspectives in th...
- Feminizing the University: The Mobilities, Careers, and Contributions ...
- Is there a gender-based fragmentation of communication science? An inv...
- The ethos of post-normal science
- Are Women Scientists Getting the Credit They Deserve?
- Imperial ambivalences. Histories of lady travellers and the French exp...
- Blinding applicants in a first-stage peer-review process of biomedical...
- Cien arquitectas en Wikipedia
- Discipline building in Germany: women and genetics at the Berlin Insti...
- Kjønnsbalanse i akademiske toppstillinger – med blikk for brytninger o...
- Women in science: The persistence of traditional gender roles. A case ...
- Should I stay or should I go? The effects of precariousness on the gen...
- Being Polish scientists and women – between glorious past and difficul...
- “Navigating” through a scientific career: A question of private and pr...
- Understanding gender inequality and the role of the work/family interf...
- Research impact in co-authorship networks: a two-mode analysis
- Finding Matilda: deconstructing women’s invisibility in ...
- Unlocking Women’s Leadership Potential...
- Famous medical physicists often get more credit for discoveries due to...
- Tourism’s lost leaders: Analysing gender and performance
- Academic Excellence and Gender Bias in the Practices and Perceptions o...
- Excelence a genderové předsudky v praktikách a vnímání přírodních vědc...
- Excellence and Gender Equality Policies in Neoliberal Universities
- Men Set Their Own Cites High: Gender and Self-citation across Fields a...
- Wie entstehen wissenschaftliche Subjekte?
- Factors Influencing Scientists’ Public Engagement
- The image of scientists in The Big Bang Theory
- Venus, Mars, and Math: Gender, Societal Affluence, and Eighth Graders’...
- Recognition of achievement – priorities and process
- Publication activities of German junior researchers in academic medici...
- A global call for action to include gender in research impact assessme...
- Communities of Computing: Computer Science and Society in the ACM
- Which gender gap? Factors affecting researchers’ scientific impact in ...
- Broadening the Study of Participation in the Life Sciences: How Critic...
- The Matthew Effect, and Cumulative Advantage in the Global Knowledge P...
- Predicting citation patterns: defining and determining influence
- Implicações éticas do efeito Mateus na ciência
- “Let us salute one of our kind.” How academic obituaries consecrate re...
- The Status of Women in Canadian Foreign Policy Analysis
- A Fundação Oswaldo Cruz e a ciência no feminino: a participação femini...
- Domestic Space
- Academic capacity building: holding up a mirror
- Conclusions: What Is Left Behind
- Can we predict citation counts of environmental modelling papers? Four...
- The Tensions of Homemade Science in the Work of Henderina Scott and He...
- Where are the female science professors? A personal perspective
- Where are the female science professors? A personal perspective
- Gênero, ciências e tecnologias: caminhos percorridos e novos desafios
- The Impact of the Internet on Health Consultation Market Concentration...
- On the Compliance of Women Engineers with a Gendered Scientific System
- Social exclusion in academia through biases in methodological quality ...
- Desigualdades de género en la investigación en salud pública y epidemi...
- Matthew Effect
- Bibliography
- Migliorare la salute delle donne nei luoghi di lavoro: aspetti normati...
- Norms, competition and visibility in contemporary science: The legacy ...
- Gender and productivity in biotechnology: Evidence from mexican scient...
- College admissions viewbooks and the grammar of gender, race, and STEM
- Awards, Public Recognition, and Evaluation
- Should the research performance of scientists be distinguished by gend...
- Women from Diverse Backgrounds in the Science, Technology, Engineering...
- Le libre accès aux articles scientifiques : référentiels, principes, n...
- L’interférence parentalité-travail chez les chercheurs en post-doctora...
- The discourse of meritocracy contested/reproduced: Foreign women acade...
- Gender Bias in Appointment Procedures for Full Professors: Challenges ...
- ‘She's not good with crying’: the effect of gender expectations on gra...
- Awards before and after the Nobel Prize: A Matthew effect and/or a tic...
- Ray Wu as Fifth Business: Deconstructing collective memory in the hist...
- Think Tanks, Funding, and the Politics of Policy Knowledge in Canada
- Gender differences in conference presentations: a consequence of self-...
- O labirinto de cristal: as trajetórias das cientistas na Física
- The Matilda Effect in Science Communication...
- Gender bias and explanation models for the phenomenon of women’s discr...
- Gender differences in research collaboration
- International mobility of women in science and technology careers: sha...
- The Matilda Effect—Role Congruity Effects on Scholarly Communication...
- The Possible Role of Resource Requirements and Academic Career-Choice ...
- Recycling Texts or Stealing Time?: Plagiarism, Authorship, and Credit ...
- Gender practices in the construction of academic excellence: Sheep wit...
- Ethos and symbolic violence among women of science: An empirical study
- The Matilda Effect in science: Awards and prizes in the US, 1990s and ...
- Shortcomings of the IQ-Based Construct of Underachievement
- The Consequences of Predicting Scientific Impact in Psychology Using J...
- On disciplinary judgement
- Quand l’échange de savoirs se heurte à la reconnaissance
- The influence of effects and phenomena on citations: a comparative ana...
- Defending normativism
- Richard Kahn's fellowship dissertation: The fate of ‘The Economics of ...
- Sex differences in research funding, productivity and impact: an analy...
- Understanding Gender: Some Implications for Science and Technology
- The African Eve Effect in Science
- Gender Differences in Scientists’ Public Outreach and Engagement Activ...
- What Knowers Know Well: Women, Work and the Academy
- Fähigkeiten und Fundamentalfähigkeiten
- Graph Evolution via Social Diffusion Processes
- Dynamik und Verbreitung des Matthäus-Effekts
- Effects of scholar’s gender and professional position on publishing pr...
- Wissenschaftssoziologie
- Informatik
- Transformer du social en outil. Des femmes bibliothécaires et productr...
- 수도권과 비수도권 교수연구자의 연구업적 비교
- ‘Where are your intelligent mothers to come from?’: marriage and famil...
- Collaboration, Reputation and the Business of Mathematics
- An insight into the Matthew effect in Mexico
- Technicians
- Persistent nepotism in peer-review
- Informatik: Geschlechteraspekte einer technischen Disziplin
- Institucionalização das ciências, sistema de gênero e produção científ...
- Opportunities for women in early genetics
- Kristine Bonnevie, Tine Tammes and Elisabeth Schiemann in Early Geneti...
- What Causes a Management Article to be Cited—Article, Author, or Journ...
- The Primacy of Science in Modernity, of Technology in Postmodernity, a...
- Matthew Effect
- Women in interdisciplinary science: Exploring preferences and conseque...
- Why Gender Is a Relevant Factor in the Social Epistemology of Scientif...
- Revistas científicas e a constituição do campo de estudos de gênero: u...
- Literatur
- A Black Technician and Blue Babies
- Crumbling Ivory Towers: Academic Organizing and its Gender Effects
- Gender and Trust in Science
- Re-Imag(in)ing Women in Science: Projecting Identity and Negotiating G...
- Gender and Trust in Science
- On metaphors on the position of women in academia and science
- Food Matters: Changing Dimensions of Science and Practice in the Nutri...
- A Twisted Tale: Women in the Physical Sciences in the Nineteenth and T...
- Athena Unbound: The Advancement of Women in Science and Technology
- Gender Discrimination in the Promised Land of Gender Equality
- Contested memory: Notes on Robert K. Merton’s“the Thomas Theorem and t...
- Making space for women in the history of physics
- Some Methodological and Epistemological Issues Raised by Doing ...
- Childhood Traits and Conditions of Eminent Women Scientists
- The importance of human relationships in scientific productivity
- Scientometrics: A citation based bibliography, 1993
- Women, Science, and Universities
- Female Founders of STS
- Bibliographie
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