![[PDF]](/pb-assets/Icons/adobe-pdf-icon-1498649896243.png){kind=icon}
Abstract
As part of universal screening efforts in schools, validated measures that identify internalizing distress are needed. One promising available measure, the Depression, Anxiety, and Stress Scales–21 (DASS–21), has yet to be thoroughly investigated with adolescents in the United States. This study investigated the underlying factor structure of the DASS–21 in a sample of U.S. adolescents (N = 2,454) by using confirmatory factor analytic techniques to test several alternate models. A bifactor model specifying general Negative Affectivity and three specific factors of Depression, Anxiety, and Stress yielded the best fit. Results from this study suggest that (a) the DASS–21 scales reflect a common factor, indicating that a total score of the DASS–21 can be derived as a measure of general negative affectivity, and (b) the DASS–21 may not adequately differentiate between the experiences of negative affectivity, anxiety, and stress in U.S. adolescents.
References
Section:
|
Antony, M. M., Beiling, P. J., Cox, B. J., Ens, M. W., Swinson, R. P. (1998). Psychometric properties of the 42-item and 21-item versions of the Depression Anxiety Stress Scales in clinical groups and a community sample. Psychological Assessment, 10, 176-181. doi:10.1037/1040-3590.10.2.176 Google Scholar | Crossref | ISI | |
|
Beauducel, A., Herzberg, P. Y. (2006). On the performance of maximum likelihood versus means and variance adjusted weighted least squares estimation in CFA. Structural Equation Modeling: A Multidisciplinary Journal, 13, 186-203. doi:10.1207/s15328007sem1302_2 Google Scholar | Crossref | ISI | |
|
Bottesi, G., Ghisi, M., Altoè, G., Conforti, E., Melli, G., Sica, C. (2015). The Italian version of the Depression Anxiety Stress Scales-21: Factor structure and psychometric properties on community and clinical samples. Comprehensive Psychiatry, 60, 170-181. doi:10.1016/j.comppsych.2015.04.005 Google Scholar | Crossref | Medline | ISI | |
|
Brown, T. A. (2006). Confirmatory factor analysis for applied research. New York, NY: Guilford Press. Google Scholar | |
|
Brown, T. A., Chorpita, B. F., Korotisch, W., Barlow, D. H. (1997). Psychometric properties of the Depression Anxiety Stress Scales (DASS) in clinical samples. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 35, 79-89. doi:10.1016/S0005-7967(96)00068-X Google Scholar | Crossref | Medline | ISI | |
|
Browne, M. W., Cudeck, R. (1989). Single sample cross-validation indices for covariance structures. Multivariate Behavioral Research, 24, 445-455. doi:10.1207/s15327906mbr2404_4 Google Scholar | Crossref | Medline | ISI | |
|
Clark, L. A., Watson, D. (1991). Tripartite model of anxiety and depression: Psychometric evidence and taxonomic implications. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 100, 316-336. doi:10.1037/0021-843X.100.3.316 Google Scholar | Crossref | Medline | ISI | |
|
Cunningham, J. M., Suldo, S. M. (2014). Accuracy of teachers in identifying elementary school students who report at-risk levels of anxiety and depression. School Mental Health, 6, 237-250. doi:10.1007/s12310-014-9125-9 Google Scholar | Crossref | ISI | |
|
Curran, P. J., West, S. G., Finch, J. F. (1996). The robustness of test statistics to nonnormality and specification error in confirmatory factor analysis. Psychological Methods, 1, 16-29. doi:10.1037/1082-989X.1.1.16 Google Scholar | Crossref | ISI | |
|
Deković, M., Buist, K. L., Reitz, E. (2004). Stability and changes in problem behavior during adolescence: Latent growth analysis. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 33, 1-12. doi:10.1023/A:1027305312204 Google Scholar | Crossref | ISI | |
|
Dowdy, E., Doane, K., Eklund, K., Dever, B. (2013). A comparison of teacher nomination and screening to identify behavioral and emotional risk within a sample of underrepresented students. Journal of Emotional and Behavioral Disorders, 21, 127-137. doi:10.1177/1063426611417627 Google Scholar | SAGE Journals | ISI | |
|
Fabrigar, L. R., Wegener, D. T., MacCallum, R. C., Strahan, E. J. (1999). Evaluating the use of exploratory factor analysis in psychological research. Psychological Methods, 4, 272-299. doi:10.1037/1082-989X.4.3.272 Google Scholar | Crossref | ISI | |
|
Fröjd, S. A., Nissinen, E. S., Pelkonen, M. U. I., Marttunen, M. J., Koivisoto, A. M., Kaltiala-Heino, R. (2008). Depression and school performance in middle adolescent boys and girls. Journal of Adolescence, 31, 485-498. doi:10.1016/j.adolescence.2007.08.006 Google Scholar | Crossref | Medline | ISI | |
|
Geisinger, K. F. (1994). Cross-cultural normative assessment: Translation and adaptation issues influencing the normative interpretation of assessment instruments. Psychological Assessment, 6, 304-312. doi:10.1037/1040-3590.6.4.304 Google Scholar | Crossref | |
|
Glover, T. A., Albers, C. A. (2007). Considerations for evaluating universal screening assessments. Journal of School Psychology, 45, 117-135. doi:10.1016/j.jsp.2006.05.005 Google Scholar | Crossref | ISI | |
|
Goodman, R. (1997). The strengths and difficulties questionnaire: A research note. Child Psychology & Psychiatry & Allied Disciplines, 38(5), 581–586. doi:10.1111/j.1469-7610.1997.tb01545.x Google Scholar | Crossref | Medline | ISI | |
|
Goodman, R. (2001). Psychometric properties of the strengths and difficulties questionnaire. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 40, 1337-1345. doi:10.1097/00004583-200111000-00015 Google Scholar | Crossref | Medline | ISI | |
|
Gudiño, O. G., Lau, A. S., Yeh, M., McCabe, K. M., Hough, R. L. (2009). Understanding racial/ethnic disparities in youth mental health services: Do disparities vary by problem type? Journal of Emotional and Behavioral Disorders, 17, 3-16. doi:10.1177/1063426608317710 Google Scholar | SAGE Journals | ISI | |
|
Henry, J. D., Crawford, J. R. (2005). The short-form version of the Depression Anxiety Stress Scales (DASS-21): Construct validity and normative data in a large non-clinical sample. British Journal of Clinical Psychology, 44, 227-239. doi:10.1348/014466505X29657 Google Scholar | Crossref | Medline | ISI | |
|
Hu, L., Bentler, P. M. (1998). Fit indices in covariance structure modeling: Sensitivity to underparameterized model misspecification. Psychological Methods, 3, 424-453. doi:10.1037/1082-989X.3.4.424 Google Scholar | Crossref | ISI | |
|
Huang, J. Y., Arnold, D., Qui, C., Miller, R. S., Williams, M. A., Enquobahrie, D. A. (2014). Association of serum vitamin D with symptoms of depression and anxiety in early pregnancy. Journal of Women’s Health, 23, 588-595. doi:10.1089/jwh.2013.4598 Google Scholar | Crossref | Medline | ISI | |
|
Hui, C. H., Triandis, H. C. (1985). Measurement in cross-cultural psychology: A review and comparison of strategies. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 16, 131-152. doi:10.1177/0022002185016002001 Google Scholar | SAGE Journals | ISI | |
|
Jenkins, L. N., Damaray, M. K., Wren, N. S., Secord, S. M., Lyell, K. M., Magers, A. M., . . . Tennant, J. (2014). A critical review of five commonly used social-emotional and behavioral screeners for elementary or secondary schools. Contemporary School Psychology, 18, 241-254. doi:10.1007/s40688-014-0026-6 Google Scholar | Crossref | |
|
Joiner, T. E., Catanzaro, S. J., Laurent, J. (1996). Tripartite structure of positive and negative affect, depression, and anxiety in child and adolescent psychiatric inpatients. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 105, 401-409. doi:10.1037/0021-843X.105.3.401 Google Scholar | Crossref | Medline | ISI | |
|
Kamphaus, R. W., Reynolds, C. R. (2007). BASC-2 Behavioral and Emotional Screening System. Minneapolis, MN: Pearson Assessment. Google Scholar | |
|
Kamphaus, R. W., Reynolds, C. R., Dever, B. V. (2014). Behavioral and mental health screening. In Kettler, R. J., Glover, T. A., Albers, C. A., Feeney-Kettler, K. A. (Eds.), Universal screening in educational settings: Evidence-based decision making for schools (pp. 249-273). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association. Google Scholar | Crossref | |
|
Kataoka, S. H., Zhang, L., Wells, K. B. (2002). Unmet need for mental health care among U.S. children: Variation by ethnicity and insurance status. American Journal of Psychiatry, 159, 1548-1555. doi:10.1176/appi.ajp.159.9.1548 Google Scholar | Crossref | Medline | ISI | |
|
Lane, K. L., Little, M. A., Casey, A. M., Lambert, W., Wehby, J., Weisenbach, J. L., Phillips, A. (2009). A comparison of systematic screening tools for emotional and behavioral disorders. Journal of Emotional and Behavioral Disorders, 17, 93-105. doi:10.1177/1063426608326203 Google Scholar | SAGE Journals | ISI | |
|
Levitt, J. M., Saka, N., Romanelli, L. H., Hoagwood, K. (2007). Early identification of mental health problems in schools: The status of instrumentation. Journal of School Psychology, 45, 163-191. doi:10.1016/u.usp.2006.11.005 Google Scholar | Crossref | ISI | |
|
Levitt, V. H., Merrell, K. W. (2009). Linking assessment to intervention for internalizing problems of children and adolescents. School Psychology Forum: Research in Practice, 3(1), 13-26. Google Scholar | |
|
Lovibond, S. H., Lovibond, P. F. (1995). Manual for the Depression Anxiety Stress Scales. Sydney, Australia: Psychology Foundation. Google Scholar | |
|
Mellor, D., Vinet, E. V., Xu, X., Bt Mamat, N. H., Richardson, B., Roman, F. (2015). Factorial invariance of the DASS-21 among adolescents in four countries. European Journal of Psychological Assessment, 21, 138-142. doi:10.1027/1015-5759/a000218 Google Scholar | Crossref | ISI | |
|
Merikangas, K. R., Jian-ping, H., Burstein, M., Swanson, S. A., Avenevoli, S., Lihong, C., . . . Swendsen, J. (2010). Lifetime prevalence of mental disorders in U.S. adolescents: Results from the National Comorbidity Study-Adolescent Supplement (NCS-A). Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 49, 980-989. doi:10.1016/j.jaac.2010.05.017 Google Scholar | Crossref | Medline | ISI | |
|
Muthén, L. K., Muthén, B. O. (1998-2013). Mplus user’s guide (6th ed.). Los Angeles, CA: Author. Google Scholar | |
|
Ng, F., Trauer, T., Dodd, S., Callaly, T., Campbell, S., Berk, M. (2007). The validity of the 21-item version of the Depression Anxiety Stress Scales as a routine clinical outcome measure. Acta Neuropsychiatrica, 19, 304-310. doi:10.1111/j.1601-5215.2007.00217.x Google Scholar | Crossref | Medline | ISI | |
|
Osman, A., Wong, J. L., Bagge, C. L., Freedenthal, S., Gutierrez, P. M., Lozano, G. (2012). The Depression Anxiety Stress Scales-21 (DASS-21): Further examination of dimensions, scale reliability, and correlates. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 68, 1322-1338. doi:10.1002/jclp.21908 Google Scholar | Crossref | Medline | ISI | |
|
Papandrea, K., Winefield, H. (2011). It’s not just the squeaky wheels that need the oil: Examining teachers’ views on the disparity between referral rates for students with internalizing versus externalizing problems. School Mental Health, 3, 222-235. doi:10.1007/s12310-011-9063-8 Google Scholar | Crossref | |
|
Patrick, J., Dyck, M., Bramston, P. (2010). Depression Anxiety Stress Scale: Is it valid for children and adolescents? Journal of Clinical Psychology, 66, 996-1007. doi:10.1002/jclp.20696 Google Scholar | Crossref | Medline | ISI | |
|
Reid, R., Gonzalez, J. E., Nordness, P. D., Trout, A., Epstein, M. H. (2004). Meta-analysis of the academic status of students with emotional/behavioral disturbance. Journal of Special Education, 38, 130-143. doi:10.1177/00224669040380030101 Google Scholar | SAGE Journals | ISI | |
|
Reise, S. P. (2012). The rediscovery of bifactor measurement models. Multivariate Behavioral Research, 47, 667-696. doi:10.1080/00273171.2012.715555 Google Scholar | Crossref | Medline | ISI | |
|
Rhemtulla, M., Brosseau-Liard, P. É., Savalei, V. (2012). When can categorical variables be treated as continuous? A comparison of robust continuous and categorical SEM estimation methods under suboptimal conditions. Psychological Methods, 17, 354-373. doi:10.1037/a0029315 Google Scholar | Crossref | Medline | ISI | |
|
Roberts, R. E., Roberts, C. R., Chen, Y. R. (1997). Ethnocultural differences in prevalence of adolescent depression. American Journal of Community Psychology, 25, 95-110. doi:10.1023/A:1024649925737 Google Scholar | Crossref | Medline | ISI | |
|
Rodriguez, A., Reise, S. P., Haviland, M. G. (2016). Evaluating bifactor models: Calculating and interpreting statistical indices. Psychological Methods, 21, 137–150. doi:10.1037/met0000045 Google Scholar | Crossref | Medline | ISI | |
|
Sirin, S. R., Rogers-Sirin, L., Cressen, J., Gupta, T., Ahmed, S. F., Novoa, A. D. (2015). Discrimination-related stress effects on the development of internalizing symptoms among Latino adolescents. Child Development, 86, 709-725. doi:10.1111/cdev.12343 Google Scholar | Crossref | Medline | ISI | |
|
Smith, S. R. (2007). Making sense of multiple informants in child and adolescent psychopathology: A guide for clinicians. Journal of Psychoeducational Assessment, 25, 139-149. doi:10.1177/0734282906296233 Google Scholar | SAGE Journals | ISI | |
|
Stiffler, M. C., Dever, B. V. (2015). Mental health screening at school: Instrumentation, implementation, and critical issues. New York, NY: Springer. Google Scholar | Crossref | |
|
Szabo, M. (2010). The short version of the Depression Anxiety Stress Scales (DASS-21): Factor structure in a young adolescent sample. Journal of Adolescence, 33, 1-8. doi:10.1016/j.adolescence.2009.05.014 Google Scholar | Crossref | Medline | ISI | |
|
Tull, M. T., Gratz, K. L. (2008). Further examination of the relationship between anxiety sensitivity and depression: The mediating role of experiential avoidance and difficulties engaging in goal-directed behavior when distressed. Journal of Anxiety Disorders, 22, 199-210. doi:10.1016/j.janxdis.2007.03.005 Google Scholar | Crossref | Medline | ISI | |
|
Tully, P., Zajac, I., Venning, A. (2009). The structure of anxiety and depression in a normative sample of younger and older Australian adolescents. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 37, 717-726. doi:10.1007/s10802-009-9306-4 Google Scholar | Crossref | Medline | ISI | |
|
Umaña-Taylor, A., Updegraff, K. A. (2007). Latino adolescents’ mental health: Exploring the interrelations among discrimination, ethnic identity, cultural orientation, self-esteem, and depressive symptoms. Journal of Adolescence, 30, 549-567. doi:10.1016/j.adolescence.2006.08.002 Google Scholar | Crossref | Medline | ISI | |
|
Varela, R. E., Hensley-Maloney, L. (2009). The influence of culture on anxiety in Latino youth: A review. Clinical Child and Family Psychology Review, 12, 217-233. doi:10.1007/s10567-009-0044-5 Google Scholar | Crossref | Medline | ISI | |
|
Watson, D., Clark, L. A. (1984). Negative affectivity: The disposition to experience aversive emotional states. Psychological Bulletin, 96, 465-490. doi:10.1037/0033-2909.96.3.465 Google Scholar | Crossref | Medline | ISI | |
|
Willemsen, J., Markey, S., Declercq, F., Vanheule, S. (2011). Negative emotionality in a large community sample of adolescents: The factor structure and measurement invariance of the short version of the Depression Anxiety Stress Scales (DASS-21). Stress & Health, 27, 120-128. doi:10.1002/smi.1342 Google Scholar | Crossref | ISI | |
|
Willis, G. B. (1999). Cognitive interviewing: A “how to” guide. Rockville, MD: Research Triangle Institute, Laboratory for Survey Methods and Measurement. Retrieved from www.hkr.se/pagefiles/35002/gordonwillis.pdf Google Scholar | |
|
Young, E. L., Sabbah, H. Y., Young, B. J., Reiser, M. L., Richardson, M. J. (2010). Gender differences and similarities in a screening process for emotional and behavioral risks in secondary schools. Journal of Emotional and Behavioral Disorders, 18, 225-235. doi:10.1177/1063426609338858 Google Scholar | SAGE Journals | ISI | |
|
Zahn-Waxler, C., Klimes-Dougan, B., Slattery, M. J. (2000). Internalizing problems of childhood and adolescence: Prospects, pitfalls, and progress in understanding the development of anxiety and depression. Development and Psychopathology, 12, 443-466. doi:10.1017/S0954579400003102 Google Scholar | Crossref | Medline | ISI | |
|
Zychinski, K. E., Polo, A. J. (2012). Academic achievement and depressive symptoms in low-income Latino youth. Journal of Child and Family Studies, 21, 565-577. doi:10.1007/s10826-011-9509-5 Google Scholar | Crossref | ISI |
