![[PDF]](/pb-assets/Icons/adobe-pdf-icon-1498649896243.png){kind=icon}
Abstract
Positive intercultural attitudes and civic action are increasingly important for youth around the world given the economic, social justice, and environmental challenges they face. Among U.S. youth and emerging adults, ethnic identity and self-efficacy are related to positive intercultural attitudes and may prompt civic engagement. Youth’s efficacy and civic involvement are critically important in sub-Saharan Africa, where rates of civil conflict are among the highest in the world. However, little research has been conducted with East African youth. In this paper, we discuss contextual challenges facing East African youth and the potential role of ethnic identity and self-efficacy in promoting peaceful and sustainable societies. We report qualitative results and scores on standard measures of self -efficacy, ethnic identity, and intercultural attitudes for 554 youth members of environmental clubs in Tanzania, Uganda, and the United States. Ethnic identity was associated with enhanced self-efficacy in East African, but not U.S. participants. East Africans scored higher on ethnic identity compared to U.S. youth and were more likely to reference intercultural attitudes in open-ended responses. Results provide some support for construct relevance in East Africa, however psychometric results, including internal consistency, validity, and factor structure, were mixed. Our results provide a cautionary tale about the import of measures across cultures and contexts. There is a need for international research, measurement development, and further explication of the meaning and function of ethnic identity across cultures.
Keywords ethnic identity, self-efficacy, intercultural attitudes, youth, East Africa
References
Section:
|
African Union . (2006). African youth charter. Retrieved from http://www.africa-union.org/root/au/Documents/Treaties/Text/African_Youth_Charter.pdf Google Scholar | |
|
American Psychological Association . (2009). Psychology and global climate change: Addressing a multi-faceted phenomenon and set of challenges (Report of the American Psychological Association Task Force Report on the interface between psychology and global climate change). Google Scholar | |
|
Aponte, J. F., Johnson, L. R. (2000). The impact of culture on the intervention and treatment of ethnic populations. In Aponte, J. F., Wohl, J. (Eds.), Psychological interventions and cultural diversity (pp. 18-39). Boston, MA: Allyn and Bacon. Google Scholar | |
|
Arnett, J. (2008). The neglected 95%: Why American psychology needs to become less American. American Psychologist, 63, 602-614. Google Scholar | Crossref | Medline | ISI | |
|
Avery, D. R., Tonidandel, S., Thomas, K. M., Johnson, C. D., Mack, D. A. (2007). Assessing the Multigroup Ethnic Identity Measure for measurement equivalence across racial and ethnic groups. Educational and Psychological Measurement, 67, 877-888. Google Scholar | SAGE Journals | ISI | |
|
Bandura, A. (2001). Social cognitive theory: An agentive perspective. Annual Review of Psychology, 52, 1-26. Google Scholar | Crossref | Medline | ISI | |
|
Beaudoin, C. E. (2007). HIV prevention in sub-Saharan Africa: a multilevel analysis of message frames and their social determinants. Health Promotion International, 22, 198-206. Google Scholar | Crossref | Medline | |
|
Benson, P. L., Scales, P. C., Mannes, M. (2003). Developmental strengths and their sources: Implications for the study and practice of community building. In Lerner, R. M., Jacobs, F., Wertlieb, D. (Eds.), Handbook of applied developmental science: Vol. I. Applying developmental science for youth and families: Historical and theoretical foundations (pp. 369-406). Newbury Park, CA: SAGE. Google Scholar | Crossref | |
|
Bentler, P. M. (1990). Comparative fit indexes in structural models. Psychological Bulletin, 107, 238-246. Google Scholar | Crossref | Medline | ISI | |
|
Bentler, P. M., Bonett, D. G. (1980). Significance tests and goodness of fit in the analysis of covariance structures. Psychological Bulletin, 88, 588-606. Google Scholar | Crossref | ISI | |
|
Blash, R., Unger, D. (1995). Self-concept of African-American male youth: Self-esteem and ethnic identity. Journal of Child and Family Studies, 4, 359-373. Google Scholar | Crossref | |
|
Branch, C. W. (2001). The many faces of the self: ego and ethnic identities. Journal of Genetic Psychology, 162, 412-429. Google Scholar | Crossref | Medline | |
|
Branch, C. W., Tayal, P., Triplett, C. (2002). The relationship of ethnic identity and ego identity status on adolescence and young adults, International Journal of Intercultural Relations, 24, 777-790. Google Scholar | Crossref | |
|
Brislin, R. W. (1970). Back-translation for cross-cultural research. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 1, 185-216. Google Scholar | SAGE Journals | ISI | |
|
Catalano, R. F., Berglund, M. L., Ryan, J. A. M., Lonczak, H. S., Hawkins, J. D. (2004). Positive youth development in the United States: Research findings on evaluations of positive youth development programs. Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, 591, 98-124. Google Scholar | SAGE Journals | ISI | |
|
Central Intelligence Agency . (2009). The world factbook. Washington, DC: Author. Retrieved from https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/index.html Google Scholar | |
|
Cheney, K. (2007). Pillars of the nation: Child citizens and Ugandan national development. Chicago, IL: The University of Chicago Press. Google Scholar | Crossref | |
|
Chigunta, F. (2002, September). The socio-economic situation of youth in Africa: Problems, prospects and options. Paper presented at the Youth Employment Summit, Alexandria, Egypt. Google Scholar | |
|
Eccles, J., Gootman, J. (2002). Community programs to promote youth development. Washington, DC: National Academy Press, Institute of Medicine. Google Scholar | |
|
Elbadawi, E., Sambanis, N. (2000). Why are there so many civil wars in Africa? Understanding and preventing violent conflict. African Economics, 9, 244-269. Google Scholar | Crossref | |
|
Eyler, J., Giles, D. (1999). Where’s the learning in service learning? San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass. Google Scholar | |
|
Fairhead, J. (2000). The conflict over natural and environmental resources. In Nafziger, E. W., Stewart, F., Vayrynen, R. (Eds.), War, hunger, and displacement: The origins of humanitarian emergencies (pp. 147-178). New York, NY: Oxford University Press. Google Scholar | Crossref | |
|
Fearon, J. (2003). Ethnic and cultural diversity by country. Journal of Economic Growth, 8, 195-222. Google Scholar | Crossref | ISI | |
|
Fitzpatrick, M. (2007). Tanzania. In Monie, L., Wall, J. (Eds.), Lonely planet (4th ed., pp. 103-265.). Victoria, Australia: Lonely Planet. Google Scholar | |
|
Flanagan, C., Faison, N. (2001). Youth civic development: Implications of research for social policy and programs. Social policy report: A publication of the society for research in child development, 15, 3-15. Google Scholar | |
|
Fortenberry, J. D., Brizendine, E. J., Katz, B. P., Orr, D. P. (2002). The role of self-efficacy and relationship quality in partner notification by adolescents with sexually transmitted infections. Archives of Pediatrics & Adolescent Medicine, 156, 1133-1137. Google Scholar | Crossref | Medline | |
|
Fuller, G. (1995). The demographic backdrop to ethnic conflict: A geographic overview. In CIA (Ed.), The challenge of ethnic conflict to national and international order in the 1990s (pp. 151-154), Washington, DC: Central Intelligence Agency. Google Scholar | |
|
Green, E. D. (2007). Demography, diversity and nativism in contemporary Africa: Evidence from Uganda, in nations and nationalism. Journal of the Association for the Study of Ethnicity and Nationalism, 13, 717-736. Google Scholar | |
|
Grigorenko, E. L., O’Keefe, P. A. (2004). What do children do when they cannot go to school? In Sternberg, R. J., Grigorenko, E. L. (Eds.), Culture and competence: Contexts of life success (pp. 23-53). Washington, D C: American Psychological Association. Google Scholar | Crossref | |
|
Gyekye, K. (1988). The unexamined life: Philosophy and the African experience. Accra: Ghana Universities Press. Google Scholar | |
|
Health Communication Partnership . (2007). African transformation engenders self-efficacy, improves gender norms, and increases community participation. Baltimore, MD: Health Communication Partnership. Google Scholar | |
|
Helms, J. E. (1990). Black and White racial identity: Theory, research and practice. New York, NY: Greenwood. Google Scholar | |
|
Helms, J. E. (1995). An update of Helms’s White and People of Color racial identity models. In Ponterotto, J. G., Casas, J. M., Suzuki, L. A., Alexander, C. M. (Eds.), Handbook of multicultural counseling (pp. 181-198). Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE. Google Scholar | |
|
Hilker, L. M. (2009). Everyday ethnicities: Identity and reconciliation among Rwandan youth. Journal of Genocide Research, 11, 81-100. Google Scholar | Crossref | |
|
Horowitz, D. L. (2000). Ethnic groups in conflict (2nd ed.). Berkeley: University of California Press. Google Scholar | |
|
Johnson, L. R., Johnson-Pynn, J. (2007). Cultivating compassion and youth action around the globe: A preliminary report on Jane Goodall’s Roots and Shoots Program. Journal of Youth Development: Bridging Research and Practice. Retrieved from www.nae4ha.org Google Scholar | |
|
Johnson, L. R., Kibanja, G., Abdelali, A. (in press). African perspectives on invasion and personal engagement. In Malley-Morrison, K., Hines, D. A., McCarthy, S. (Eds.). International Handbook on war, torture and terrorism. Springer. Google Scholar | |
|
Johnson, L. R., Tucker, C. (2008). Cultural issues. In Hersen, M., Gross, A. M. (Eds.), Handbook of clinical psychology, vol 2: Children and adolescents (pp. 789-832). Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley. Google Scholar | |
|
Johnson-Pynn, J. S., Johnson, L. R. (2005). Successes and challenges in east African conservation education. Journal of Environmental Education, 36, 25-39. Google Scholar | Crossref | |
|
Johnson-Pynn, J. S., Johnson, L. R (2010). Exploring environmental education for East African youth: Do program contexts matter? Children, Youth and Environments, 20(1). Retrieved from http://www.colorado.edu/journals/cye Google Scholar | |
|
Jöreskog, K. G., Sörbom, D. (1981). LISREL V: Analysis of linear structural relationships by the method of maximum likelihood. Chicago, IL: National Educational Resources. Google Scholar | |
|
Jöreskog, K. G., Sörbom, D. (1989). LISREL 7 user’s reference guide. Chicago, IL: Scientific Software. Google Scholar | |
|
Kibanja, G., Kajumba, M. M., Johnson, L. R. (in press). In R. Albert and D. Landis (Eds), Handbook of ethnopolitical conflict. Springer. Google Scholar | |
|
Lerner, R. M. (2004). Liberty: Thriving and civic engagement among American youth. Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE. Google Scholar | |
|
Lerner, R. M., Fisher, C. B., Weinberg, R. A. (2000). Toward a science for and of the people: Promoting civil society through the application of developmental science. Child Development, 71, 11-20. Google Scholar | Crossref | Medline | ISI | |
|
Limber, S. P., Kaufman, N. H. K. (2002). Civic participation in children and youth. In Kaufman, N. H., Rizzini, I. (Eds.), Globalization and children: Exploring potentials for enhancing opportunities in the lives of children and youth (pp. 81-90). New York, NY: Kluwer Academic/Plenum. Google Scholar | |
|
Maathai, W. (2008). Tribal clashes, healing and reconciliation; how and when? Retrieved from www.greenbeltmovement.org Google Scholar | |
|
Moely, B. E., McFarland, M., Miron, D., Mercer, S. H., Ilustre, V. (2002a). Changes in college students’ attitudes and intentions for civic involvement as a function of service-learning experiences. Michigan Journal of Community Service Learning, 9, 18-26. Google Scholar | |
|
Moely, B. E., Mercer, S. H., Ilustre, V., Miron, D., McFarland, M. (2002b). Psychometric properties and correlates of the Civic Attitudes and Skills Questionnaire (CASQ): A measure of students’ attitudes related to service-learning. Michigan Journal of Community Service Learning, 8, 15-26. Google Scholar | |
|
Museveni, Y. (1997). Sowing the mustard seed: The struggle for freedom and democracy in Uganda. Oxford, UK: Macmillan. Google Scholar | |
|
Myers-Lipton, S. J. (1996). Effect of service learning on college students’ attitudes toward international understanding. Journal of College Student Development, 37, 659-668. Google Scholar | |
|
Naker, D., Mann, G., Rajani, R. (2007). The gap between rhetoric and practice: Critical perspectives on children’s participation. Children, Youth and Environments, 17, 99-103. Google Scholar | |
|
Newbrough, J. R., Lorion, R. P. (1996). Sense of community: A theory’s evolution over a decade. Journal of Community Psychology, 24, 311-438. Google Scholar | |
|
Oettingen, G. (1995). Cross-cultural perspectives on self-efficacy beliefs. In Bandura, A. (Ed.), Self-efficacy in changing societies (pp. 149-176). New York, NY: Cambridge University Press. Google Scholar | Crossref | |
|
Opotow, S., Clayton, S. (Eds.). (2003). Identity and the natural environment: The psychological significance of nature. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. Google Scholar | |
|
Owens, G. R. (2005). The secret history of TANU: Rumor, historiography and Muslim unrest in contemporary Dar es Salaam. History and Anthropology, 16, 441-463. Google Scholar | Crossref | |
|
Phinney, J. (1989). Stages of ethnic identity development in minority group adolescents. Journal of Early Adolescence, 9, 34-49. Google Scholar | SAGE Journals | |
|
Phinney, J. (1992). The Multigroup Ethnic Identity Measure: A new scale for use with diverse groups. Journal of Adolescent Research, 7, 156-176. Google Scholar | SAGE Journals | |
|
Phinney, J., Alipuria, L. (1990). Ethnic identity in college students from four ethnic groups. Journal of Adolescence, 13, 171-183. Google Scholar | Crossref | Medline | ISI | |
|
Phinney, J., Jacoby, B., Silva, C. (2007). Positive intergroup attitudes: The role of ethnic identity. International Journal of Behavioral Development, 31, 478-490. Google Scholar | SAGE Journals | ISI | |
|
Proshansky, H. M., Fabian, A. K., Kaminoff, R. (1983). Place-identity: Physical world socialization of the self. Journal of Environmental Psychology, 3, 57-83. Google Scholar | Crossref | |
|
Ratner, C. (2006). Cultural psychology: A perspective on psychological functioning and social reform. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum. Google Scholar | Crossref | |
|
Ripke, M., Huston, A. C., Eccles, J., Templeton, J. (2008). The assessment of psychological, emotional, and social development indicators in middle childhood. In Brown, B. V. (Ed.), Key indicators of child and youth well-being (pp.131-163). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum. Google Scholar | |
|
Roberts, R., Phinney, J., Masse, L., Chen, Y., Roberts, C., Romero, A. (1999). The structure of ethnic identity in young adolescents from diverse ethnocultural groups. Journal of Early Adolescence, 19, 301-322. Google Scholar | SAGE Journals | ISI | |
|
Roth-Herbst, J. L., Borberly, C. J., Brooks-Gunn, J. (2008). Developing indicators of confidence, character, and caring in adolescence. In Brown, B. V. (Ed.), Key indicators of child and youth well-being: Completing the picture (pp. 167-196). New York, NY: Taylor & Francis. Google Scholar | |
|
Scales, P. C., Benson, P. L., Leffert, N. (2000). Contribution of developmental assets to the prediction of thriving among adolescents. Applied Developmental Science, 4, 27-46. Google Scholar | Crossref | |
|
Scholz, U., Gutierrez-Dona, B., Sud, S., Schwarzer, R. (2002). Is general self-efficacy a universal construct? Psychometric findings from 25 countries. European Journal of Psychological Assessment, 18, 242-251. Google Scholar | Crossref | ISI | |
|
Schwarzer, R., Jerusalem, M. (1995). Generalized Self-Efficacy Scale. In Weinman, J., Wright, S., Johnston, M. (Eds.), Measures in health psychology: A user’s portfolio. Causal and control beliefs (pp. 35-37). Windsor, UK: Nfer-Nelson. Google Scholar | |
|
Sharlet, J. (2010, September). Straight man’s burden: the American roots of Uganda’s anti-gay persecutions. Harper’s magazine, pp 36-48. Google Scholar | |
|
Smith, E. P., Walker, K., Fields, L., Brookins, C. C., Seay, R. (1999). Ethnic identity and its relationship to self-esteem, perceived efficacy and prosocial attitudes in early adolescence. Journal of Adolescence, 22, 867-880. Google Scholar | Crossref | Medline | ISI | |
|
Sneed, J. R., Schwartz, S. J., Cross, W. E. (2006). A multicultural critique of Eriksonian-based research and theory: A call for integration. Identity: An International Journal of Theory and Research, 6, 61-84. Google Scholar | Crossref | |
|
Steiger, J. H. (1990). Structural model evaluation and modification: An interval estimation approach. Multivariate Behavioral Research, 25, 173-180. Google Scholar | Crossref | Medline | ISI | |
|
Tajfel, H., Turner, J. C. (1979). An integrative theory of intergroup conflict. In Austin, W. G., Worchel, S. (Eds.), The social psychology of intergroup relations (pp. 33-47). Monterey, CA: Brooks/Cole. Google Scholar | |
|
Torney-Purta, J., Schwille, J., Amadeo, J. A. (1999). Civic education across countries: Twenty-four case studies from the IEA Civic Education Project. Amsterdam, Netherlands: International Association for the Evaluation of Educational Achievement (IEA). Google Scholar | |
|
Triandis, H. C. (1995). Individualism and collectivism. San Francisco, CA: Westview. Google Scholar | |
|
United Nations . (2009a). The Millennium Development Goals Report 2009. New York, NY: Author. Google Scholar | |
|
United Nations . (2009b). Youth at the United Nations. Questions and answers. Retrieved from http://www.un.org/esa/socdev/unyin/qanda.htm Google Scholar | |
|
United Nations Children’s Fund . (2004). Annual report 2003. New York, NY: UNICEF. Google Scholar | |
|
United Nations . (2010). Assessing Africa’s progress toward the millenium developmental goals (MDG Report 2010). Retrieved from www.uneca.org/mdgreports/2010/2010MDGR.pdf Google Scholar | |
|
Vaughan, P. W., Rogers, E. M., Singhal, A., Swalehe, R. M. (2000). Entertainment-education and HIV/AIDS prevention: a field experiment in Tanzania. Journal of Health Communication, 5, 81-100. Google Scholar | Crossref | Medline | ISI | |
|
Visions of Humanity (2010). The Global Peace Index. Retrieved from www.visionofhumanity.org/gpi-data Google Scholar | |
|
Worrell, F. C., Conyers, L. M., Mpofu, E., Vandiver, B. J. (2006). Multigroup Ethnic Identity Measure scores in a sample of adolescents from Zimbabwe. Identity: An International Journal of Theory and Research, 6, 35-59. Google Scholar | Crossref | |
|
Yancey, A. K., Aneshensel, C. S., Driscoll, A. K. (2001). The assessment of ethnic identity in a diverse urban youth population. Journal of Black Psychology, 27, 190-208. Google Scholar | SAGE Journals | |
|
Yartey, C. A. (2004). The economics of civil war in sub-saharan Africa. In Clement, J. A. P. (Ed.), Postconflict economics in sub-saharan Africa: Lessons from the Democratic Republic of the Congo (pp. 87-128). Washington, DC: International Monetary Fund. Google Scholar | |
|
Yoshikawa, H., Weisner, T. S., Kalil, A., Way, N. (2008). Mixing qualitative and quantitative research in developmental science: Uses and methodological choices. Developmental Psychology, 44, 344-354. Google Scholar | Crossref | Medline | ISI |
