Abstract
The purpose of this study was to provide insight into what occurs in moments of high challenge within participants during an outdoor adventure education (OAE) program. Given the inherent risk and remote locations often associated with OAE programs, it has remained challenging to measure selected psychological constructs while the program is taking place. This study utilized qualitative methods including in situ data collection techniques and quantitative inquiry methods to identify and determine what is happening to participants before, during, and after a high challenge activity—rappelling. The results of this study identified five salient themes that emerged as important constructs for OAE participants and are useful to consider as researchers and OAE practitioners design and implement high challenge activities. Further analysis and discussion about the importance of these themes are discussed at length.
|
Alesina, A., La Ferrara, E. (2002). Who trusts others? Journal of Public Economics, 85, 207-234. Google Scholar | Crossref | ISI | |
|
Allison, P. (2014). Research and the black box. In Ewert, A., Sibthorp, J. (Eds.), Outdoor adventure education: Foundations, theory, and research (p. 142). Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics. Google Scholar | |
|
Ames, C., Archer, J. (1988). Achievement goals in the classroom: Students’ learning strategies and motivation processes. Journal of Educational Psychology, 80, 260-267. Google Scholar | Crossref | ISI | |
|
Bandura, A. (1977). Self-efficacy: Toward a unifying theory of behavioral change. Psychological Review, 84, 191-215. Google Scholar | Crossref | Medline | ISI | |
|
Berg, B. (2004). Qualitative research methods for the social sciences (5th ed.). Boston, MA: Pearson. Google Scholar | |
|
Berman, M. G., Jonides, J., Kaplan, S. (2008). The cognitive benefits of interacting with nature. Psychological Science, 19, 1207-1212. Google Scholar | SAGE Journals | ISI | |
|
Bowen, D., Neill, J. (2013). A meta-analysis of adventure therapy outcomes and moderators. The Open Psychology Journal, 6, 28-53. Google Scholar | Crossref | |
|
Creswell, J. W., Miller, D. L. (2000). Determining validity in qualitative inquiry. Theory Into Practice, 39, 124-130. Google Scholar | Crossref | ISI | |
|
Davidson, C., Ewert, A. (2012). Enhancing social support through adventure education: The case for fathers and sons. Research in Outdoor Education, 11, 63-73. Google Scholar | Crossref | |
|
Dillon, J., Rickinson, M., Teamey, K., Morris, M., Choi, M. Y., Sanders, D., Benefield, P. (2006). The value of outdoor learning: evidence from research in the UK and elsewhere. School science review, 87(320), 107. Google Scholar | |
|
Davis-Berman, J., Berman, D. (2002). Risk and anxiety in adventure programming. Journal of Experiential Education, 25, 305-310. Google Scholar | SAGE Journals | |
|
Diener, E., Biswas-Diener, R. (2005). Psychological empowerment and subjective well-being. In Narayan-Parker, D. (Ed.), Measuring empowerment: Cross-disciplinary perspectives (pp. 125-140). New Delhi, India: OxfordUniversity Press. Google Scholar | |
|
Drebing, C. E. (1987). Anxiety and the outward bound process. Journal of Experiential Education, 10, 17-21. Google Scholar | SAGE Journals | |
|
Entwistle, N. (1988). Motivational factors in students’ approaches to learning. In Schmeck, R. R. (Ed.), Learning strategies and learning styles (pp. 21-52). Boston, MA: Springer. Google Scholar | Crossref | |
|
Ewert, A. (1989). Outdoor adventure pursuits: Foundations, models, and theories. Columbus, OH: Publishing Horizons. Google Scholar | |
|
Ewert, A., Mitten, D., Overholt, J. (2014). Natural environments and human health. Boston, MA: CABI. Google Scholar | Crossref | |
|
Ewert, A., Overholt, J., Voight, A., Wang, C. (2011). Understanding the transformative aspects of the wilderness and protected lands experience upon human health. In Watson, A., Murrieta-Saldivar, J., McBride, B., comps. Science and Stewardship to Protect and Sustain Wilderness Values: Ninth World Wilderness Congress Symposium, 6-13 November 2009, Merida, Yucatan, Mexico, pp. 140-146. Proceedings RMRS-P-64. Fort Collins, CO: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station. Google Scholar | |
|
Ewert, A., Sibthorp, J. (2009). Creating outcomes through experiential education: The challenge of counfounding variables. Journal of Experiential Education, 31, 376-389. Google Scholar | SAGE Journals | |
|
Ewert, A., Voight, A. (2012). The role of adventure education in enhancing health-related variables. International Journal of Health, Wellness, and Society, 2, 75-87. Google Scholar | Crossref | |
|
Ewert, A., Yoshino, A. (2011). The influence of short-term adventure-based experiences on levels of resilience. Journal of Adventure Education and Outdoor Learning, 11, 35-50. Google Scholar | Crossref | |
|
Florian, V., Mikulincer, M. (1995). Effects of adult attachment style on the perception and search for social support. Journal of Psychology, 129, 665-676. Google Scholar | Crossref | Medline | ISI | |
|
Guba, E. G., Lincoln, Y. S. (1994). Competing paradigms in qualitative research. In Denzin, N. K., Lincoln, Y. S. (Eds.), Handbook of qualitative research (pp. 163-194). Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE. Google Scholar | |
|
Hans, T. A. (2000). A meta-analysis of the effects of adventure programming on locus of control. Journal of Contemporary Psychotherapy, 30, 33-60. Google Scholar | Crossref | |
|
Hattie, J., Marsh, H. W., Neill, J. T., Richards, G. E. (1997). Adventure education and outward bound: Out-of-class experiences that make a lasting difference. Review of Educational Research, 67, 43-87. Google Scholar | SAGE Journals | ISI | |
|
Jackson, D., Firtko, A., Edenborough, M. (2007). Personal resilience as a strategy for surviving and thriving in the face of workplace adversity: A literature review. Journal of Advanced Nursing, 60, 1-9. Google Scholar | Crossref | Medline | ISI | |
|
Kaplan, H. B. (2002). Toward an understanding of resilience. In Glantz, M. D., Johnson, J. L. (Eds.), Resilience and development (pp. 17-83). New York, NY: Springer. Google Scholar | Crossref | |
|
Kaplan, S. (1995). The restorative benefits of nature: Toward an integrative framework. Journal of Environmental Psychology, 15, 169-182. Google Scholar | Crossref | ISI | |
|
Kaplan, S. (2001). Meditation, restoration and the management of mental fatigue. Environment & Behavior, 33, 480-506. Retrieved from http://eab.sagepub.com/content/33/4/480.short Google Scholar | |
|
Katz, J. (2001). Analytic induction. In Smelser, N. J., Baltes, P. B. (Eds.), International encyclopedia of the social & behavioral sciences (pp. 480-484). Oxford, UK: Elsevier. Google Scholar | Crossref | |
|
Lynch, P., Jonson, P., Dibben, M. (2007). Exploring relationships of trust in “adventure” recreation. Leisure Studies, 26, 47-64. Google Scholar | Crossref | |
|
Neill, J. (1997). Gender: How does it effect the outdoor education experience. Proceedings of the 10th National Outdoor Education Conference (pp. 78-84). Dubuque, IA: Kendall Hunt. Google Scholar | |
|
Sheard, M., Golby, J. (2006). The efficacy of an outdoor adventure education curriculum on selected aspects of positive psychological development. Journal of Experiential Education, 29, 187-209. Google Scholar | SAGE Journals | |
|
Shellman, A., Ewert, A. (2010). A multi-method approach to understanding empowerment processes and outcomes of adventure education program experiences. Journal of Experiential Education, 32, 275-279. Google Scholar | SAGE Journals | |
|
Sibthorp, J., Jostad, J. (2014). The social system in outdoor adventure education programs. Journal of Experiential Education, 37, 60-74. Google Scholar | SAGE Journals | |
|
Silverman, D. (2006). Interpreting qualitative data: Methods for analyzing talk, text, and interaction. London, England: SAGE. Google Scholar | |
|
Stewart, W. P., Hull, R. B.. (1996). Capturing the moments: Concerns of in situ leisure research. Journal of Travel & Tourism Marketing, 5, 3-20. Google Scholar | Crossref | |
|
Surrey, J. L. (1991). Relationship and empowerment. In Jordan, J. V., Kaplan, A. G., Miller, J. B., Stiver, I. P., Surrey, J. L. (Eds.), Women’s growth in connection: Writings from the Stone Center (pp. 162-180). New York, NY: Guilford Press. Google Scholar | |
|
Walsh, V., Golins, G. (1976). The exploration of the outward bound process. Denver, CO: Colorado Outward Bound School. Google Scholar |

