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Abstract
This research is based on interviews that explore the reflections of 10 Norwegian kindergarten practitioners with regard to the importance of their involvement in children’s physically active outdoor playtime. The data were analysed from a qualitative phenomenological perspective and resulted in basic themes that describe the practitioners’ experiences. The findings highlight the intersubjectivity, physical communication and reciprocity involved in promoting children’s involvement in and enjoyment of physically active play. From the practitioners’ perspectives, their ability to be involved in and share experiences of physically active play with the children is essential for encouraging children to be inspired and involved in such play. They see themselves as important role models, and think that offering support and sharing responses with children in these situations is valuable for children’s physical mastery. The findings from this study emphasize the importance of practitioners being involved and actively promoting children’s physically active play.
The level of physical activity in the Norwegian population is considered to be too low, and there are marked social differences between high and low education and income and the level of physical activity (Norwegian Directorate of Health, 2008). The foundation for a physically active lifestyle is established during early childhood, and a motivating environment that encourages all children to be physically active is important to promote health. Physical activity in kindergarten includes exercise and other play activities that involve bodily movement. Physically active play can be understood as activities that involve moderate to high levels of physical activity in a context of play with energy expenditure above the physiological (muscular, cardiorespiratory) norm (Osnes et al., 2010). Engaging in moderate to vigorous activity for at least 60 minutes per day is recommended for this age group (Cardon and De Bourdeaudhuij, 2008). In this study, we use the concept of ‘physically active play’, where the physical play itself is the goal and the level of physical activity is initiated by the child.
The context of Norwegian kindergartens
Outdoor play, taking trips and being in nature have a long tradition in Norwegian kindergartens (Lysklett, 2013). It is documented that the use of nature promotes positive risk-taking among children, as well as the development of motor skills and physical fitness (Fjørtoft, 2001; Giske et al., 2010; Ministries, 2005; Mjaavatn and Fjørtoft, 2008; Sandseter, 2010). Most Norwegian kindergartens have access to the outdoors and nature areas in the immediate vicinity that are suitable for play and physical activity. There is considerable variation in the amount of time spent outdoors, depending on the season and the characteristics, focus and goals of the kindergarten (Norwegian Directorate of Health, 2012).
Research confirms that most of the time spent outdoors in Norwegian kindergartens is used for spontaneous play, which is organized by the children themselves (Bjørgen, 2006; Seland, 2009). There are few studies that examine what employees do and the types of interactions they have with children during outdoor time. Giske et al. (2010) believe that there is an increased need for knowledge on how play initiation should be monitored and what educators should do to encourage physical activity, especially for children who are not physically active. How teachers influence each other to promote the involvement in and inspiration for outdoor play has rarely been discussed or documented.
Theoretical perspectives
This study is inspired by theories of motivation, phenomenology and intersubjectivity. They will be discussed in turn.
Motivation in physical activity
A motivating climate can promote the involvement in and enjoyment of physically active play. Children with a high level of involvement are highly concentrated on and ‘absorbed’ by their activity; they show interest, motivation and even fascination, and tend to persevere through the activity (Laevers, 1996, 2005; Laevers and Heylen, 2003). The concept of involvement refers to intense mental activity, where a child is functioning at the very limits of his or her capabilities, with an energy ‘flow’ that comes from intrinsic sources (Csikszentmihalyi, 1985; Laevers, 2005). The children’s mimicry and posture can indicate intense mental activity, especially when they fully experience sensation and meaning (Leavers, 2005). The way people express themselves physically and bodily, through movement and the expression of energy and vitality, can be a signal of how they experience pleasure and enjoyment in an activity. Different forms of movement patterns can indicate feelings of vitality. Vitality is an understanding of what it means to be ‘alive’ – that is, the manifestation of life (Stern, 2010). Stern (2010) traced vitality to movement, time and perception of force, as well as spatial aspects of the movement and its underlying intention.
The theory of self-determination (Deci and Ryan, 1985, 2000; Ryan and Deci, 2008) represents the satisfaction of competence, social belonging/relationships and autonomy as three basic psychological needs that affect people’s vitality and energy while performing a task. A child’s need to find the right challenges in physically active play will most likely affect his or her physical involvement and competence level. Kindergarten’s facilitation of challenges that match the competence level of the children can improve their energy and vitality, and promote further involvement. Relationships during physical play can reinforce the motivation for the activity. Having interactions and relationships with other children and adults may be necessary for children to satisfy their need to belong and make changes and develop in different areas. A good motivating climate is characterized by warmth, caring and mutual interests between participants (Reeve, 2002; Reeve et al., 2004). Being valued and receiving positive feedback may be important for children’s development and self-perception in those performance areas. According to Vallerand (1999, 2007), the influence of educators on the motivational climate is significant for both encouraging involvement and maintaining engagement in an activity within a social relationship. In this context, it is interesting to highlight practitioners’ perceptions of their influence on their kindergarten children’s physically active outdoor play.
Phenomenological and intersubjective understanding
The core of Merleau-Ponty’s (1962) theory is the constitution of meaning in human experience and his sustained argument for the foundational role that perceptions and the body play in understanding the world. He argues that the body is closely related to consciousness. Consciousness, the world and the human body as a perceiving thing are intricately intertwined and mutually ‘engaged’ (Merleau-Ponty, 1962). Perceptions have an active dimension – that is, a primordial openness to life and the world. Merleau-Ponty demonstrated a corporeity of consciousness, in which the body is seen as a physical organ; through sensory impressions, we can communicate and create an intersubjective world. The role of the kindergarten in sensory stimulation may be relevant for children’s reflections and self-perceptions. This idea suggests that children’s bodily development, learning and changes involve a change in the way they perceive themselves in the world, which suggests that the awareness of the bodily knowledge expressed in physically active play may be not verbal, but a kind of tacit knowledge (Gustavsson, 2009).
Children’s ability to interact with others during outdoor play will continuously contribute to shaping their experiences of themselves. This ability is in accordance with the intersubjective understanding of development. An intersubjective understanding implies that both development and change occur through meetings with the minds of others, because we are born with dialogic minds (Stern, 1985, 2000, 2005; Trevarthen, 1980; Trevarthen and Aitken, 2001). Intersubjective exchanges among people are a basis for the development of subjectivity, solidarity, opinions and bodily self-perceptions. During physical play, it is important for children to understand the meaning of the activity and the conditions under which they are invited into the play; the contributions of others may be significant. Affective dialogue based on awareness, rhythm, affective attunement and movement will continue to play a major role in communication throughout life, with increasing variety and complexity (Stern, 2010). Creating relationships in which children can recognize and experience their contributions as important constituents of ongoing relationships is essential for development, and allows children to live new adventures and life experiences (Stern, 2010).
Stern (2004) maintains that focusing on the present moments in everyday life has the power to bring about change. He presents the questions of what ‘here and now’ actually means, how ‘now’ is experienced differently by two people, and what present moments have to do with growth and change. Stern (2004: 22) explains that the ‘now’ moment occurs in a very short period of time: ‘this now is a present moment with duration in which a micro-drama, an emotional story, about their relationships unfolds’. This jointly lived experience is mentally shared: each person intuitively partakes in the experience of the other. This experience is described as an intersubjective sharing of a mutual experience that is grasped without having to be verbalized, and it becomes a part of the implicit knowledge of their relationship.
Aim of the study
This study is based on an understanding of kindergarten practitioners’ experiences of children’s motivation and involvement in physically active play. The intention is to develop more knowledge about what promotes and constrains children’s involvement and motivated action in physically active play. The research question and sub-questions are as follows:
How do Norwegian kindergarten practitioners perceive their importance in children’s involvement in physically active outdoor play?
What type of influence do practitioners think they have on promoting the involvement of children in physically active play?
How do practitioners experience the factors that promote enjoyment of and motivated action in physically active play?
Methodology
This research is based on interviews that examine practitioners’ understanding of and reflections on their importance in children’s involvement in and enjoyment of physically active outdoor play. In this project, we are interested in how practitioners think, feel and act, and the essence of the meaning of their experiences. In order to understand more about promoting children’s physical activity in health-related issues, we started with the experiences of practitioners. We consider a phenomenological method to be useful for this study because the research questions are designed to elucidate the essential meaning experienced by practitioners in three Norwegian kindergartens.
Data collection was carried out in three randomly selected kindergartens in central Norway. The sample of three kindergartens allowed for a wider perspective on the subject of interest. The use of outdoor time was fairly similar across the kindergarten classes. The children spent approximately two to three hours outdoors every day, depending on the season. They went on trips to different places in nature two to three days a week with different groups of 10–15 children. Kindergarten A was a nature/outdoor kindergarten that worked with approximately 55 children aged one to six. Kindergarten B was a day-care unit with approximately 40 children, and had separate classes for older children and toddlers. Kindergarten C was a kindergarten with three departments that worked with approximately 45 children aged one to six. The managers in the three selected kindergartens were contacted by phone and letter, informed about the study and asked to participate. On their agreement to participate, direct contact was established with the pedagogical leaders of the various departments. Practitioners were asked if they wanted to join the project. The only specific selection criterion was that practitioners had experience with outdoor time in their kindergartens.
The participants included eight women and two men aged between 22 and 63, with an average age of 35. They included six preschool teachers and four assistants. We included the assistants in the study because they spend as much time with the children and are in some cases closer to the children than the preschool teachers. Most of the informants had experience with both toddlers and older children. Table 1 shows the details of each of the 10 participants.
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Table 1. Details of each of the 10 participants.
In describing the findings, tags are used to list quotes from the interviews. The following is an example of the type of coding employed: Informant 1 = Female, 40, Teacher, Kindergarten A. Participation was voluntary. Each participant agreed on a time and place to conduct the interview.
The interview guide (Appendix 1) contained questions that assessed the pedagogical practical role of the teachers and assistants in the outdoor environments of the kindergartens. We want to understand the essence of the meaning of the practitioners’ experiences of the actions, attitudes, relationships or other human matters that generate involvement in physically active outdoor play. Phenomenological studies focus on the understandable meaning of these experiences (Lindseth and Norberg, 2004: 146). We employed open-ended questions in order to allow participants to speak freely and provide deeper insights. Follow-up questions were posed. The interviews were recorded with an audio recording device and transcribed by the first researcher. The interviews were conducted in the language of Norwegian. Translations of the transcriptions were undertaken by the researchers, in conjunction with American journal experts. Transcripts of the interviews were sent by mail to the practitioners for member-checking, review and error correction. Member-checking implies that the participants recognized the description and interpretation carried out by the researchers, in order to increase the credibility of the data.
This project was approved by the Norwegian Social Science Data Services (NSD). The project satisfied the NSD’s privacy requirements and was approved to be undertaken as planned. All data are treated confidentially; information and personal data are anonymous, and the data will be deleted on completion of the project. This protocol is in line with the NSD’s privacy policy.
Data analysis
The goal of the analysis was to reveal the phenomenological meaning of the practitioners’ described experiences. Giorgi’s (1985, 2009) model for the descriptive phenomenological method was used for analysis of the qualitative data, and adopted as a stance of phenomenological reduction; previous knowledge about the phenomenon was bracketed, and the claims made regarded the presence of the phenomenon, rather than its existence. The concrete steps of the model are: (1) Read for sense of the whole, (2) Determination of meaning units and (3) Transformation of participant’s natural attitude expressions into phenomenologically psychologically sensitive expressions (Giorgi, 2009: 128).
Step 1
Through transcribing the interviews, we formed an impression of the text at an early stage in the analysis. Adopting a phenomenological approach, we read the entire written account in order to obtain a holistic sense of each description (Giorgi, 1985). This approach requires becoming familiar with the data by reading the text several times in order to grasp its meaning as a whole. According to Lindseth and Norberg (2004: 149): ‘to do this it is necessary for us to be open enough to allow the text to speak to us. We become touched and moved by it’. This reading is a kind of ‘naïve reading’, or a shift from a natural attitude to a phenomenological attitude. The perceptions of the 10 informants formed units of meaning through significant statements from the text. We divided each practitioner’s text into ‘meaning units’.
Step 2
The next step was to synthesize the transformed units of meaning into a consistent general structure in order to create an analysis of several informants’ experiences and a general structural description. Adopting an educational-psychological perspective, the phenomenological essence of each meaning unit was uncovered and expressed in transformation units (describing the essence). This was guided by the research questions. The various elements of the meaning units were altered, with the aim to discover what remained consistent throughout the variations.
Step 3
In the last step, we synthesized a general psychological structure of the experiences based on the constituents of the experiences. The perceptions were categorized and clustered into six major themes related to the research questions (see Appendix 2 for a description of the categories and how they are clustered into the themes). In order to ensure credibility, the texts were divided between the two authors, and both carried out the three steps. The themes reported here are a result of discussion and negotiation between both authors.
Findings
Our aim was to discover the structures of the practitioners’ experiences and to uncover what they think are the essential experiences in promoting physically active outdoor play. The findings are categorized into six themes related to the two research sub-questions. The first sub-question, ‘What type of influence do practitioners think they have on promoting the involvement of children in physically active play?’ resulted in the themes of (1) being a physical role model; (2) scaffolding and being responsive; and (3) creating a contagion effect in physically active play. The second sub-question, ‘How do practitioners experience the factors that promote enjoyment of and motivated action in physically active play?’ has the themes of (1) feelings of freedom and autonomy; (2) social relationships; and (3) reciprocal enjoyment in sharing physical experiences.
What type of influence do practitioners think they have on promoting the involvement of children in physically active play?
Being a physical role model
This domain reflects the practitioners’ effect as a role model for children during physically active play. The 10 practitioners used verbal expressions such as: ‘to show and express gladness/joy/pleasure’, ‘to be a physical model/idol’, ‘to show engagement’, ‘to be involved with the children’, ‘to be a facilitator’, ‘scaffolding’ (being supportive and instructive), ‘to be a supervisor’ and ‘to be an observer’. Informant 1 (Female, 40, Teacher, Kindergarten A) commented:
I experience my own role in outdoor time as a facilitator and supporter. It is an active role; I’m not always included in the play, but sometimes I see myself as a facilitator of different activities. I experience myself as a supervisor.
We find these expressions to be linked to being a physical and bodily role model. The practitioners emphasized the role of being a facilitator and supporter. Simultaneously, they recognized that it is not enough to be only a facilitator; they also have to be role models through bodily communications, which are important for children’s involvement in physically active play:
The children follow us in everything we do and say. In that sense, we are models; we are important to the children. (Informant 2, Male, 29, Teacher, Kindergarten A)
[T]he child follows us and will do the same things we do. The child sees adults do physical activities, which leads children to do the same thing. Especially for the children who are not active, those who fall outside the activities, the adult’s attitudes and physical communications are very important. (Informant 6, Female, 63, Teacher, Kindergarten B)
The findings indicate that the practitioners emphasized physical communication as role models. Their physical behaviour and attitudes may promote involvement in physical play. Physical communication is especially important for developing and maintaining physical play, and involving children who are not as physically active.
Scaffolding and being responsive
Most of the informants focused on the importance of the children’s mastery of physical play, which had an impact on the extent to which the children were involved and motivated to engage in an activity. The feedback is relevant with regard to the children’s physical mastery:
My experience is that children need a lot of affirmative feedback in physical motor mastery. Children like to be affirmed, and they seem to be more satisfied and safe with affirmations. (Informant 9, Female, 32, Assistant, Kindergarten C)
You can’t only give children tasks; you have to change, regulate and alter the tasks you give the children according to their individual levels of mastery. (Informant 2, Male, 29, Teacher, Kindergarten A)
We have to find the experiences that match the child’s capabilities. Bodily expressions and body language are good indicators of how we should adjust children’s mastery in physical activities. (Informant 6, Female, 63, Teacher, Kindergarten B)
Affirmation and responses are interesting with regard to the implications for children’s involvement in and enjoyment of physically active play. From the practitioners’ perspective, the analyses show that intersubjective relationships are central to including children in their own mastery in order to make them conscious about their own bodily experiences. Informant 4 (Female, 30, Teacher, Kindergarten C) said: ‘You can ask them a question – for example, “What can you do now?”’ In this way, children are included and made aware of their physical mastery. The practitioners also found that children’s body language and expressions are important indicators of how physical motor activities can be modified, regulated and adjusted in order to get children involved. Affirming a child’s mastery and feelings in physically active play is critical.
Most of the practitioners shared stories about the importance of reactions and responses between the participants in outdoor play. Informant 9 (Female, 32, Assistant, Kindergarten C) commented:
Because I responded to the child and provided attention, and then we laughed together, it became a fun and physical activity. Children are concerned about the reactions and responses of adults, which are important for shaping their own physical ways of being.
At the same time, we find it interesting that many of the practitioners seemed to be unaware of what to scaffold; the significance of being a responsive teacher was hardly discussed.
The practitioners reflected on differences in affirmations and responses according to the child’s age. With toddlers (aged one to three), practitioners used physical communication, such as smiling, eye contact, thumbs up and applause. For the older children (aged three to six), the practitioners used more oral communication, but stated that a glance and eye contact may be enough communication in some situations. The findings indicate that the mode and timing of the response – the affirmation culture in physically active play – can be critical for promoting children’s involvement in and enjoyment of physical activities.
Creating a contagion effect in physically active play
The practitioners’ experiences highlight the intersubjective relationships between children and adults, and how the role model can promote physically active play and affect children’s motivation to engage in it. The practitioners’ attitude towards physical activity, and the way they express enjoyment of outdoor activity, may be critical for the development of children’s attitudes and feelings towards physical activities. We find it interesting that the practitioners’ approach to physical activity had a contagious effect on the relationships and activities in the outdoor environment:
My approach to being active has a contagious effect on children. If adults express happiness being in nature and being active outdoors, this will affect the children’s happiness. (Informant 4, Female, 30, Teacher, Kindergarten C)
If you demonstrate the pleasure of being outdoors, it rubs off on the children. (Informant 3, Female, 30, Teacher, Kindergarten C)
The findings reveal that physical communications of energy, vitality and bodily expressions may have contagious effects on the level of involvement in and enjoyment of physically active play. The influence of the physical reciprocity effect between participants on the motivation climate of physical play is significant.
How do practitioners experience the factors that promote enjoyment of and motivated action in physically active play?
Most of the practitioners mentioned that trips create enthusiasm, positive feelings and motivation. They reported having freedom, more time to do the things that they liked to do, and closer relationships with the children.
Feelings of freedom and autonomy
In outdoor hikes out of the kindergarten area, we experience having a lot of time and doing things we like to do. I feel greater freedom and closer relations to the children in nature. (Informant 10, Female, 38, Assistant, Kindergarten C)
In outdoor space in kindergarten I become an observer, and there are more routines in what we do with the children, without deep reflections. In nature, there is more freedom to do whatever you want, and trips afford an opportunity to become closer with the children. (Informant 2, Male, 29, Teacher, Kindergarten A)
The findings indicate that the informants felt more freedom, autonomy and closeness with the children on trips and in nature than in the kindergarten’s outdoor space. Having the time to do things they like to do and the absence of routines are linked to their feelings of freedom.
Social relationships
Feeling important and significant in relationships promotes children’s positive feelings towards, motivation for and involvement in activities:
When I participate in play, I … feel important to the children. By social interactions with children during play, I feel that I am important for the children. This feeling motivates me.
Being together with and included in children’s play motivates me. (Informant 7, Female, 40, Assistant, Kindergarten C)
The findings indicate that being involved in children’s activities is connected with feelings of being meaningful. The sharing of physical experiences is meaningful and makes sense in the pedagogical role during outdoor time. Walking together (children and practitioners) in the nature and on trip may promote other kinds of closeness and intersubjective social relationships not formed in the kindergarten setting. The reciprocity in the sharing of experiences – being together and mutually involved in physically active play situations – is relevant.
Reciprocal enjoyment in sharing physical experiences
The practitioners experienced greater curiosity, challenges, surprises and spontaneous events in physically active play in nature. Informant 10 (Female, 38, Assistant, Kindergarten C) commented:
In nature, children become more curious, and children’s curiosity challenges us to be more flexible. New impulses promote relationships between the participants in physical play. I become more exploratory, curious and spontaneous in nature, maybe because the children are.
These findings indicate a motivating contagious effect among the participants. Children’s curiosity affects the practitioners, and vice versa:
The children motivate us, and we motivate the children; it’s a kind of mutual influence of what motivates us. (Informant 8, Female, 22, Assistant, Kindergarten C)
The child challenges us to be present and try out new opportunities. (Informant 6, Female, 63, Teacher, Kindergarten B)
Unexpected and spontaneous events allow adults and children to experience something together – they share mutual experiences. New impulses can be important for both adults and children in order to challenge their physical motor ability and develop new skills. The physical communications among participants seem to have had a contagious effect on the motivational climate. Sharing the mutual experiences attached to the ‘present moment’ may be interesting to discuss in relation to promoting positive, motivated feelings for experiences in physically active play.
Discussion
The discussion highlights the intersubjectivity, physical communications and reciprocity in promoting children’s involvement in and enjoyment of physical play. The findings will be discussed using terminology found in the theory of intersubjectivity and motivation in order to investigate links between the practitioners’ experiences in promoting children’s involvement in and enjoyment of physical outdoor play in kindergarten.
The findings indicate that practitioners reflected on their position as role models as being significant for promoting children’s involvement in physically active outdoor play. The findings show that non-verbal physical communication is perceived reciprocally and affects participants in physically active play. In this respect, it is relevant for employees to be aware that their physical communication and that of the children have a reciprocal effect: humans perceive bodily feelings and signals, which can promote or reduce involvement in physical activity. Stern (1985) explains that physical behaviour, including the bodily mood patterns of the youngest children, and affective attunement may occur as a relational form between adults and children, especially when adults mimic the physical and mental movements of children. In this context, physical energy takes the form of bodily expressions and can be shared, communicated and relevant for understanding the involvement in and enjoyment of physically active play. According to Stern (2010), feelings of vitality are a type of physically dynamic pattern of events that is found inside us all of the time. These feelings of vitality are awakened or affected by other people’s behaviour and by changes in motivation, desire and excitement. From this point of view, it can be imagined that a child senses the physical energy, bodily expressions and behaviours of adults and other children during physically active play, which, in turn, has a contagious influence on the child’s involvement in the activity. Stern (2010) notes the possibilities to experience vitality in one’s own movement and in the movement of others. Children can sense and feel the employees’ tone of voice, facial expressions and bodily gestures as expressions of vitality. Adults may adjust their physical actions with children such that physical communication promotes positive feelings and a high level of involvement in physical play. In particular, reluctant and unenthusiastic children may be majorly affected by an enthusiastic adult, who might inspire them to engage in physical play.
The findings of this study reveal that the responsive mode and timing can be important for children to adapt their feelings for the activity. Stern (1985) explains that responsiveness to an activity affects attunement – that is, the ability of children to render their feelings when they express themselves during the actual physical actions. Affecting attunement in children’s physical play may require an understanding of children’s bodily expressions and feelings during the activity. What is involved in being responsive and supportive can be diverse and unclear. The findings of this study show that support may be understood as a form of scaffolding related to physical responses and the expression of bodily enjoyment through communication. The teachers reported that the use of physical responses was greater with toddlers than with older children. The use of both physical and verbal communication together can be meaningful for engaging children in physical play. These types of responses and communication allow children to understand and receive affirmation of their bodily consciousness and self-perception. Reeve et al. (2004) claims that mutual interest between participants, an autonomous supportive environment and a dialectical style can be important in supporting children’s development such that they recognize their inner resources. Creating mastery experiences, in which children can recognize their contributions as important within an ongoing relationship, can be essential for shaping children’s experience of the world.
Most of the practitioners in this study stated that social relationships and intersubjective communications are at the very core of being meaningful and fostering positive feelings and inspiration among participants in physically active play. The practitioners found that being interested in children’s activities was motivating for them, and vice versa. According to the findings, social relationships and the reciprocity of experiences in activities between participants playing outdoors seem to be at the core of motivation. Vallerand (1999, 2007) insists that educators have a significant influence on the motivational climate, encouraging both choice and engagement in an activity to be maintained within a social relationship. Self-determination theory (Deci and Ryan, 1985, 2000; Ryan and Deci, 2008) emphasizes that social belonging or relationships are a psychological need that affects people’s vitality and energy in performing a task. Group settings allow meaningful opportunities for children and adults to be ‘together with’ and close to each other in spontaneous experiences.
The practitioners found that elements of nature generated interest and involvement in spontaneous and surprising events, which contributed to the enjoyment of and involvement in physically active outdoor play. Sharing spontaneous and challenging experiences seems to give meaning to physically active play. Sharing in the present moment may give the adults opportunities to give direct responses of meaning related to the actual physical experiences. A child’s ability to integrate and organize various physical sensory sensations is important for the child’s physical self-perception. The body’s experiences are basic conceptions of importance to the formation of the subject (Merleau-Ponty, 1994). The practitioners’ ability to seize the ‘present moment’ and be responsive during children’s physical motor-mastery situations is significant. The timing of the response may be critical in opportunities to promote growth and development in children’s physical experiences. In shared present moments, the conditions for physical and social reflectivity can be met, and the experience becomes intersubjective. The participants who catch the spontaneous challenges in ‘present moment’ (Stern, 2004), may have opportunities to affect each other’s perceptions, emotions and enjoyment in the current physical event through their responses and physical behaviour. Stern (2010) states that people are able to share common experiences, which means that they can affect attunement, enjoyment and mutual confirmation through the sharing of moments. These shared moments can change a relationship, move people into a deeper level of intersubjectivity, and promote development and change in the actual experiences.
The findings indicate that children and adults, through physical energy, responses and physical communications, can experience reciprocal enjoyment and inspiration. According to Ryan and Deci (2008) and Stern (2010), motivation for an activity is related to human vitality and the direction of energy. In this context, it is not far-fetched to consider that the practitioners’ motivation for physically active play with children creates a visible impact on physical and verbal expression, energy and the feelings for this activity. The physical energy of practitioners may be contagious and influence the children’s involvement. This might indicate that physical behaviour and communication by adults are more important than verbal communication for promoting children’s enjoyment of and involvement in physical play.
Practical implications
Pedagogical practice in outdoor activities is multifaceted; practitioners have to master many roles. In this practice, a central question asks how practices in kindergartens are implemented. Gustavsson (2009) describes a role that requires improvisation based on experience and knowledge. Schön (1983) describes the need for reflective practitioners, who should prepare for the unexpected, be in the moment and be open to new ideas. The findings of this study reveal that the practitioners’ experiences represent a non-verbal and non-conscious domain of knowledge, wherein the practitioners are not reflectively conscious, but possess an implicit relational knowledge about how to be with children in physical play. Stern (2004) explains implicit relational knowing as being unconscious; it is not unconscious in the sense of being repressed, but it is not necessary to put it into words. In early childhood teacher education, an emphasis on practical knowledge should be combined with theoretical understanding of the body’s phenomenology and the acquisition of body-related knowledge.
It is possible that the informants could have told the researchers what they thought was ideal or what they thought the researchers wanted to hear, rather than reporting the reality. Studies that observed outdoor time in the kindergartens, in order to establish whether the statements of the informants matched reality, would have strengthened the study. However, we believe that the study examines and describes relevant insider perspectives from the practitioners’ experiences of outdoor time in three Norwegian kindergartens.
Conclusion
The findings of this study highlight the practitioners’ position as role models who are conscious of their own attitudes and physical communication with children in physically active play. The practitioners experienced the physical energy as contagious between participants. For practitioners to be present and responsive in the moment is important for children’s inspiration for, involvement in, persistence in and, ultimately, mastery of physical tasks. This study emphasizes the importance of intersubjective processes in promoting and developing a motivating culture in physically active play. The findings from the practitioners’ experiences highlight the implicit relational knowledge of being with children outdoors in kindergarten. Reciprocity in sharing experiences in physically active play can promote and affect children’s experiences and feelings.
Future studies on the influence of intersubjective relationships in promoting a motivating culture in kindergarten outdoor time could include physical communication and intersubjective responses among participants accounting for age and gender. Future studies might include observational studies to obtain knowledge about intersubjective processes in kindergarten outdoor play. Understanding the pedagogical role of practitioners in outdoor time also requires more attention.
Appendix 1
Interview guide
How do Norwegian kindergarten practitioners perceive their importance in children’s involvement in physically active outdoor play?
What type of influence do practitioners think they have on promoting the involvement of children in physically active play?
How do practitioners experience the factors that promote enjoyment of and motivated action in physically active play?
Background information: kindergarten, gender, age, work experience, preschool teacher, length of interview, department, time spent outdoors, trips, spaces in nature.
What do you think about practitioners’ role while being with children during physically active outdoor play activities?
What kind of influence do you think practitioners have on promoting the involvement in and enjoyment of physically active play?
What are your experiences of the children’s level of physical activities during outdoor time?
What are your experiences of the activities that promote involvement and the enjoyment of children? Are there differences in age/gender?
What do you think promotes motivating actions in physical play?
Can you describe differences in physically active play in outdoor areas outside the fences (on trips and in nature)?
Funding
This research received no specific grant from any funding agency in the public, commercial or not-for-profit sectors.
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Author biographies
Kathrine Bjørgen is an Assistant Professor and PhD student at Queen Maud University College of Early Childhood Education, Trondheim. Her research interests include health-related issues, motivation and enjoyment, children well-being and involvement in physical activity, and pedagogical and practical issues. She has experience with both qualitative and quantitative research in kindergarten health research. Her PhD research involves qualitative studies to understand what conditions create motivating joy in children during kindergarten outdoor time. The findings will bring further insights into educational practice during kindergarten outdoor time.
Birgit Svendsen is an Assistant Professor in the Department of Psychology at the Norwegian University of Science and Technology, Trondheim. Her research interests include psychotherapy research (with children), emotion regulation, intersubjectivity, qualitative research, discourse analysis, and children and domestic violence. Her PhD was a qualitative study exploring the therapeutic relationship as a frame of development in psychotherapy with young children, thereby contributing to making the therapists’ implicit knowledge explicit. Her theoretical frame is development and cultural psychology, which sees development as a process of dyadic interactions with competent others. The process of intersubjectivity and mutual engagement is essential for development to take place.