![[PDF]](/pb-assets/Icons/adobe-pdf-icon-1498649896243.png){kind=icon}
Abstract
Asking questions to promote higher-level thinking is often promoted as a way to challenge students, especially talented readers, to think more deeply about text and share their thinking. Recent research in a variety of educational fields has indicated that follow-up questions may be used to move all students forward in their abilities to understand and respond to such questions accessing higher-level thinking. The purpose of this qualitative investigation was to identify the types of follow-up questions frequently asked by three teachers at a small, urban elementary school in the Northeastern region of the United States and whether those types varied by students’ reading readiness levels. Results indicated that the teachers asked a variety of follow-up questions accessing both higher- and lower-level thinking during reading conferences with students whose reading levels varied; the results also indicated that each teacher tended to ask a greater percentage of higher-level questions of his or her higher-level students than of other students. The identified follow-up question types may be helpful in supporting other elementary reading teachers to expand their repertoire of questions to ask students during discourse around text.
References
Section:
|
Anderson, L. W., Krathwohl, D. R. (Eds.). (2001). A taxonomy for learning, teaching, and assessing: A revision of Bloom’s taxonomy of educational objectives. New York, NY: Longman. Google Scholar | |
|
Applebee, A. N., Langer, J. A., Nystrand, M., Gamoran, A. (2003). Discussion-based approaches to developing understanding: Classroom instruction and student performance in middle and high school English. American Educational Research Journal, 40, 685-730. Google Scholar | SAGE Journals | ISI | |
|
Applegate, M. D., Quinn, K. B., Applegate, A. J. (2002). Levels of thinking required by comprehension questions in informal reading inventories. The Reading Teacher, 56, 174-180. Google Scholar | |
|
Beck, I. L., McKeown, M. G., Sandora, C., Kucan, L., Worthy, J. (1996). Questioning the author: A yearlong classroom implementation to engage students with text. The Elementary School Journal, 96, 385-414. Google Scholar | Crossref | ISI | |
|
Cazden, C. B. (2001). Classroom discourse: The language of teaching and learning. Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann. Google Scholar | |
|
Chin, C. (2006). Classroom interaction in science: Teacher questioning and feedback to students’ responses. International Journal of Science Education, 28, 1315-1346. Google Scholar | Crossref | |
|
Cooper, C. R. (2009). Myth 18: It is fair to teach all children the same way. Gifted Child Quarterly, 53, 283-285. Google Scholar | SAGE Journals | ISI | |
|
Costa, A. L. (2001). Teacher behaviors that enable student thinking. In Costa, A. L. (Ed.), Developing minds: A resource book for teaching thinking (3rd. ed., pp. 359-369). Alexandria, VA: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development. Google Scholar | |
|
Cotton, K. (2001). Classroom questioning (Close-Up #5). Portland, OR: Northwest Regional Educational Laboratory. Google Scholar | |
|
Elizabeth, T., Anderson, T. L. R., Snow, E. H., Selman, R. L. (2012). Academic discussions. An analysis of instructional discourse and an argument for an integrative assessment framework. American Educational Research Journal, 49, 1214-1250. Google Scholar | SAGE Journals | |
|
Firmender, J. M., Reis, S. M., Sweeny, S. M. (2013). Reading comprehension and fluency levels across diverse classrooms: The need for differentiated reading instruction and content. Gifted Child Quarterly, 57, 3-14. Google Scholar | SAGE Journals | |
|
Fogarty, E. (2006). Teachers’ use of differentiated reading strategy instruction for talented, average, and struggling readers in regular and SEM-R classrooms (Doctoral dissertation). Available from ProQuest Dissertations and Theses database. (3234303) Google Scholar | |
|
Gall, M. D. (1970). The use of questions in teaching. Review of Educational Research, 40, 707-721. Google Scholar | SAGE Journals | ISI | |
|
Gee, J. P. (2001). Reading as situated language: A sociocognitive perspective. Journal of Adolescent & Adult Literacy, 44, 714-725. Google Scholar | Crossref | ISI | |
|
Gredler, M. E., Shields, C. C. (2008). Vygotsky’s legacy: A foundation for research and practice. New York, NY: Guilford Press. Google Scholar | |
|
Greyling, W. (1995). Sinclair & Coulthard revisited: Global- and local-allocational turn-taking mechanisms in the language classroom. Pragmatics and Language Learning. Monograph Series, 6, pp. 1-28. Retrieved from http://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ED399809.pdf ). Google Scholar | |
|
Hansen, C. C. (2004). Teacher talk: Promoting literacy development through response to story. Journal of Research in Childhood Education, 19, 115-129. Google Scholar | Crossref | |
|
Harkness, S. S., Wachenheim, K. (2008). Using listening journals in math methods. The Teacher Educator, 43, 59-71. Google Scholar | Crossref | |
|
Harvey, S., Goudvis, A. (2007). Strategies that work: Teaching comprehension for understanding and engagement (2nd ed.). Portland, ME: Stenhouse. Google Scholar | |
|
Hattie, J. (2009). Visible learning: A synthesis of over 800 meta-analyses relating to achievement. New York, NY: Routledge. Google Scholar | |
|
Henke, R. R., Chen, X., Goldman, G. (1999). What happens in classrooms? Instructional practices in elementary and secondary schools (Statistical Analysis Report). Washington, DC: National Center for Education Statistics, U.S. Department of Education. Google Scholar | |
|
Imm, K., Stylianou, D. A. (2012). Talking mathematically: An analysis of discourse communities. The Journal of Mathematical Behavior, 31, 130-148. Google Scholar | Crossref | |
|
Kim, Y. (2010). Scaffolding through questions in upper elementary ELL learning. Literacy Teaching and Learning, 15, 109-137. Google Scholar | |
|
Kucan, L. (2007). Insights from teachers who analyzed transcripts of their own classroom discussions. The Reading Teacher, 61, 228-236. Google Scholar | Crossref | ISI | |
|
Lawrence, J. F., Snow, C. E. (2011). Oral discourse and reading. In Kamil, M. L., Pearson, P. D., Moje, E. B., Afflerbach, P. P. (Eds.), Handbook of reading research: Volume IV (pp. 320-337). New York, NY: Routledge. Google Scholar | |
|
Lee, Y.-A. (2007). Third turn position in teacher talk: Contingency and the work of teaching. Journal of Pragmatics, 39, 1204-1230. Google Scholar | Crossref | ISI | |
|
Lemke, J. L. (1990). Talking science: Language, learning and values. Norwood, NJ: Ablex. Google Scholar | |
|
Little, C. A., Fogarty, E. (2010, May). Reflecting on change: Concerns of teachers implementing differentiated reading instruction. Paper presented at the Wallace Research Symposium on Talent Development, Iowa City, IA. Google Scholar | |
|
Little, C. A., Gilson, C. M., Kearney, K. L., Ruegg, A. (2013). What the teacher says: A study of questioning and differentiation in elementary reading conferences. Manuscript submitted for publication. Google Scholar | |
|
McConney, M., Perry, M. (2011). A change in questioning tactics: Prompting student autonomy. Investigations in Mathematics Learning, 2(3), 26-45. Google Scholar | Crossref | |
|
Mehan, H. (1979). Learning lessons. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. Google Scholar | Crossref | |
|
Merriam, S. B. (2009). Qualitative research: A guide to design and implementation. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass. Google Scholar | |
|
National Governors Association Center for Best Practices & Council of Chief State School Officers . (2010). Common Core State Standards for English/Language Arts. Washington, DC: Authors. Google Scholar | |
|
National Reading Panel (2000). Teaching children to read: An evidence-based assessment of the scientific research literature on reading and its implications for reading instruction. Reports of the subgroups. Washington, DC, U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. Google Scholar | |
|
Nystrand, M. (2006). Research on the role of classroom discourse as it affects reading comprehension. Research in the Teaching of English, 40, 392-412. Google Scholar | ISI | |
|
Oliveira, A. W. (2010). Improving teacher questioning in science inquiry discussions through professional development. Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 47, 422-453. Google Scholar | Crossref | |
|
Parker, J. P. (1989). Instructional strategies for teaching the gifted. Needham Heights, MA: Allyn & Bacon. Google Scholar | |
|
Paul, R. W. (2001). Dialogical and dialectical thinking. In Costa, A. L. (Ed.), Developing minds: A resource book for teaching thinking (3rd ed., pp. 427-436). Alexandria, VA: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development. Google Scholar | |
|
Peterson, D. S., Taylor, B. M. (2012). Using higher order questioning to accelerate students’ growth in reading. The Reading Teacher, 65, 295-304. Google Scholar | Crossref | |
|
Piccolo, D. L., Harbaugh, A. P., Carter, T. A., Capraro, M. M., Capraro, R. M. (2008). Quality of instruction: Examining discourse in middle school mathematics instruction. Journal of Advanced Academics, 19, 376-410. Google Scholar | SAGE Journals | |
|
Redfield, D. L., Rousseau, E. W. (1981). A meta-analysis of experimental research on teacher questioning behavior. Review of Educational Research, 51, 237-245. Google Scholar | SAGE Journals | ISI | |
|
Reis, S. M. (2008). Talented readers. In Plucker, J. A., Callahan, C. M. (Eds.), Critical issues and practices in gifted education: What the research says (pp. 655-667). Waco, TX: Prufrock Press. Google Scholar | |
|
Reis, S. M. (2009). The joyful reading resource kit: Teaching tools, hands-on activities, and enrichment resources. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass. Google Scholar | |
|
Reis, S. M., Eckert, R. D., Schreiber, F. J., Jacobs, J. K., Briggs, C., Gubbins, E. J., Coyne, M. (2005). The schoolwide enrichment model reading study (RM05214). Storrs: The National Research Center on the Gifted and Talented, University of Connecticut. Google Scholar | |
|
Shaunessy, E. (2000). Questioning techniques in the gifted classroom. Gifted Child Today, 23(5), 14-21. Google Scholar | SAGE Journals | |
|
Shaunessy, E. (2005). Questioning strategies for teaching the gifted. Waco, TX: Prufrock Press. Google Scholar | |
|
Sinclair, J., Coulthard, M. (1975). Towards an analysis of discourse. London, England: Oxford University Press. Google Scholar | |
|
Soter, A. O., Wilkinson, I. A., Murphy, P. K., Rudge, L., Reninger, K., Edwards, M. (2008). What the discourse tells us: Talk and indicators of high-level comprehension. International Journal of Educational Research, 47, 372-391. Google Scholar | Crossref | |
|
Struck, J. M., Little, C. A. (2011). Integrating higher order process skills and content. In VanTassel-Baska, J., Little, C. A. (Eds.), Content-based curriculum (pp. 71-99). Waco, TX: Prufrock Press. Google Scholar | |
|
Sweeny, S. M. (2008). Successful implementation of differentiated reading conferences: Case studies of SEM-R classrooms (Doctoral dissertation). Available from ProQuest Dissertations and Theses database. (3314627) Google Scholar | |
|
Thomas, D. R. (2006). A general inductive approach for analyzing qualitative evaluation data. American Journal of Evaluation, 27, 237-246. Google Scholar | SAGE Journals | ISI | |
|
Tomlinson, C. A. (2001). How to differentiate in mixed-ability classrooms. Alexandria, VA: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development. Google Scholar | |
|
van Zee, E., Minstrell, J. (1997). Using questioning to guide student thinking. The Journal of the Learning Sciences, 6, 227-269. Google Scholar | Crossref | ISI | |
|
Vygotsky, L. S. (1978). Mind in society: The development of higher psychological processes. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. Google Scholar | |
|
Wells, G. (1993). Reevaluating the IRF sequence: A proposal for the articulation of theories of activity and discourse for the analysis of teaching and learning in the classroom. Linguistics and Education, 5, 1-37. Google Scholar | Crossref | |
|
Wells, G., Wells, J. (1984). Learning to talk and talking to learn. Theory Into Practice, 25, 190-197. Google Scholar | Crossref | |
|
Wilson, N. S., Smetana, L. (2011). Questioning as thinking: A metacognitive framework to improve comprehension of expository text. Literacy, 45, 84-90. Google Scholar | Crossref | |
|
Winne, P. H. (1979). Experiments relating teachers’ use of higher cognitive questions to student achievement. Review of Educational Research, 49, 13-50. Google Scholar | SAGE Journals | ISI | |
|
Wolf, M. K., Crosson, A. C., Resnick, L. B. (2005). Classroom talk for rigorous reading comprehension instruction. Reading Psychology, 26, 27-53. Google Scholar | Crossref |
