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First published online April 2, 2019

Evolved Developmental Niche Provision Report: Moral Socialization, Social Thriving, and Social Maladaptation in Three Countries

Darcia Narvaez https://orcid.org/0000-0002-8633-8998 [email protected], Ryan Woodbury, Ying Cheng, Lijuan Wang, Angela Kurth, Tracy Gleason, Lifang Deng, Eveline Gutzwiller-Helfenfinger, Markus Christen, and Catherine NäpflinView all authors and affiliations

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https://doi.org/10.1177/2158244019840123

Abstract

Evolutionary systems theory identifies niches as key developmental inheritances for animals. The human evolved developmental niche (EDN) is characterized by positive touch, responsiveness, play, and social togetherness and provides the responsive, relational dynamism that optimizes development. Cross-sectional and longitudinal studies of the human EDN have demonstrated correlations between degree of EDN consistency in early childhood and positive sociomoral development and avoidance of ill-being and misbehavior. We created a brief report of children’s recent EDN experience and examined its relation to child well-being and sociomoral development. Using samples from three cultures (United States, N=574; Switzerland, N=96; China, N=382), EDN provision in the past week was related to multiple child outcomes even after controlling for parental age, education, income, responsivity, and child gender. Factor analyses indicated three sets of latent factors in each sample: Moral Socialization, Social Maladaptation, and Social Thriving. Structural equation models indicated that EDN provision significantly predicted Social Thriving in all samples beyond control variables. EDN provision may be particularly helpful in predicting optimal social development.

Young children’s development is an ongoing, interactive process that occurs in the context of relationships. Mothers and others provide an environment that fosters development of children’s rapidly changing systems (Keating, 2016). Theories of development that emphasize dynamism suggest that the experiences a child has early in life have significant long-term effects. For example, relational developmental systems meta-theory considers change, process, and relationships as fundamental categories of development and self-organization (Overton & Molenaar, 2015). Similarly, evolutionary systems theory (Oyama, Griffiths, & Gray, 2001) identifies multiple extra-genetic inheritances that form part of human evolutionary adaptation, such as culture and self-organization, and also the particular developmental system, niche, or nest for the young that optimizes normal development, which all animals evolved to provide their young (Gottlieb, 2002). The characteristics of the human evolved developmental niche (EDN) are commonly represented in nomadic foraging communities worldwide, the type of society that represents 95% of human history (Hewlett & Lamb, 2005), and comprise what was first called the “hunter-gatherer childhood model,” an intensified set of practices based on the social mammalian niche that emerged over 30 million years ago (Konner, 2005). The human EDN includes responsiveness to young children’s needs, extensive positive touch, lengthy on-request breastfeeding, self-directed social play in nature, multiple responsive adult caregivers, and a positive climate of support. Thus, strong theoretical foundations in ethology exist for the presence of developmental niches, but regardless of the origin, this study considers features of the purported evolved niche for young human beings. We developed a brief measure to examine the EDN and its relation to child well-being and sociomoral development.

Narvaez and colleagues have been gathering information about the EDN and find that in industrialized societies where empirical studies are usually conducted, each EDN component has been related to the development of health and well-being (for EDN component reviews, see Narvaez, Panksepp, Schore, & Gleason, 2013a). For example, affectionate touch moderates an infant’s stress response (Feldman, Singer, & Zagoory, 2010) and increases oxytocin release which is associated with social affiliation (Feldman, 2012). In a longitudinal study of at-risk families, measures of positive touch in the first year related positively to social engagement at 18 months and negatively to externalizing behaviors at ages 2 and 3; breastfeeding was linked to reduced aggression and depression at age 2—even when controlling for maternal education and income (Narvaez, Gleason, et al., 2013). Such findings support the idea that conformity to at least some aspects of the human EDN early in life is connected to later healthy psychological outcomes. Using a survey of the EDN components with a large sample (N=626) of American mothers of 3-year-olds, responsive parenting, free play with mother, closeness with caregivers, and affectionate touch were significantly related to multiple child outcomes, such as empathy, self-regulation, and concern after wrongdoing (Narvaez, Gleason, Lefever, Wang, & Cheng, 2016). A similar but broader array of relationships among the EDN components and child outcomes was found when replicated with a sample of Chinese mothers (N=383; Narvaez, Wang, et al., 2013). For example, in China, breastfeeding length was related to child empathy, inhibitory control, and concern after wrongdoing. Play with adults other than parents was related to these same outcomes in the Chinese sample but not in the American sample. In a related unpublished pilot study with a smaller sample of American mothers (N=55), observed maternal responsiveness was linked to 3-year-old children’s cognitive development, ability to identify emotions, and inhibitory control. These studies provide support for the impact of EDN-consistent caregiving on child development as well as similarities and differences between cultures.

The relations that have emerged between EDN components and sociomoral outcomes, such as empathy and concern after wrongdoing, raise the question of the mechanisms—for example, what processes are responsible for the relation between affectionate touch and empathy? Theoretically, EDN-consistent caregiving facilitates the development of physiological and psychological systems that are foundational for sociomoral functioning (e.g., affectionate touch shapes the oxytocin system and adaptive vagus nerve activity while reducing cortisol release which decreases social anxiety and increases openness in social interactions; Field, 2010). According to triune ethics meta-theory (TEM; Narvaez, 2014, 2016), three basic orientations that have their foundations in physiological and psychological development undergird sociomoral behavior. When an orientation guides behavior, trumping other values, it represents an ethic. First, self-protectionism emerges from a routinely activated stress response, leading to a self-guarding orientation in social situations. A self-protectionist ethic is facilitated by threat perception and is driven by primitive survival systems. Behaviorally, it manifests as social withdrawal or social opposition. Second, an engagement ethic involves face-to-face, flexible relational attunement. Behaviorally, it emerges from and is visible in mutually responsive social cooperation and play. Third, a reflective imagination ethic uses executive functions to facilitate reasoning and imagine prosocial possibilities in social relations. Theoretically, an early life consistent with the EDN fosters habitual use of relational attunement and reflective imagination—capacities associated with sociomoral outcomes such as empathy, self-regulation, and concern after wrongdoing (Kochanska, 2002). In multiple studies with adults, retrospective reports of EDN-inconsistent care were related to self-protectionist ethics (Narvaez, Wang, & Cheng, 2016), less prosocial behavior, and greater aggression (Narvaez & Hardy, 2016; Narvaez, Thiel, Kurth, & Renfus, 2016). In contrast, reports of greater EDN-consistent childhood experience were related to engagement and reflective imagination, and both were related to prosocial action. The focus here is on measuring the provision of the EDN in early life where theoretically these contrasting ethical orientations are initiated.

Early life orientations toward relational attunement or self-protection (opposition or withdrawal) reflect moral temperament. We define moral temperament as an individual’s tendency to be open toward others or defensive in interactions with others. In prior studies with children, mothers’ attitudes toward EDN-consistent caregiving were related to their children’s moral temperament. Mothers with positive attitudes toward EDN-consistent parenting behaviors, such as positive touch, play, responsiveness, and the engagement of multiple caregivers, were more likely to have children with a moral temperament of openness or engagement toward others (e.g., social attunement). In contrast, mothers whose attitudes were less EDN-consistent had children who exhibited defensive moral temperament or an orientation toward self-protectionism (e.g., social withdrawal; Gleason, Narvaez, Cheng, Wang, & Brooks, 2016). The study provided support for the idea that parenting attitudes toward EDN-consistent care related to children’s sociomoral orientations. In the current study, we expanded on this work, specifically wanting to examine connections between parent-reported child experience of the EDN and children’s moral temperament, as well as other measures of sociomoral development and well-being.

In prior studies of the EDN with child outcomes, mothers were questioned extensively about their general attitudes and behaviors. In this study, we sought to develop a way to measure a child’s EDN-consistent experience with only a few questions and more proximally. We developed a measure that could be used quickly and periodically with parents to measure the child’s EDN-consistent experience over time. Based on success with a 11-item adult measure of EDN history that correlated with mental health, moral capacities, and moral orientation (Narvaez, Wang, & Cheng, 2016), we developed a proximal measure to be used by parents about a child’s recent EDN experience, as a presumed snapshot of experience over the long term. We wanted to see whether a short measure of EDN-consistent experience could also capture relations between reported childhood experience and child outcomes, as did research with the longer measures described earlier. Our goal here was to validate the scores and the use of the scores to make predictions in three countries. Theoretically, we expected that scores on the new measure of EDN-consistent experience would be related to positive child outcomes. We also expected that parents who reported their children’s recent experience as EDN-consistent would have children with higher scores on measures of psychological well-being (using measures of well-being, happiness), sociomoral development (socialization measures of self-regulation, empathy, conscience), and Social Thriving (social enjoyment, attunement, consideration, imagination). If we found significant relationships between scores on the new measure and positive child outcomes, it would demonstrate the construct validity of the measure. Furthermore, we decided to take advantage of our data to explore their relation to negative outcomes. Although literature explores the relationship between parental responsiveness and child outcomes, even mitigating negative child outcomes (e.g., Sroufe, Egeland, Carlson, & Collins, 2005), little work addresses how a measure of the EDN might be related to negative child outcomes, above and beyond responsive care. We thought that perhaps those with EDN-inconsistent experience would be more likely to show psychopathology and self-protective behaviors in social situations. Thus, we also explored the relation between the EDN and negative child outcomes. In both cases—positive and negative outcomes—we controlled for parent responsivity to find out whether our short measure would provide predictive validity beyond parent responsivity.

Study 1

Method

Participants and procedure

Participants were recruited from online parenting blogs and regional daycares (574 U.S. parents [508 mothers] with 3- to 5-year-old children; 327 sons, 1 “Other Sex”). Parental age ranged from 20 to 49 years (M_mothers= 32.85; M_fathers = 32.65). Education levels were distributed across a wide spectrum: Participants completed some high school (1%); high school diploma/General Educational Development (GED; 5.2%); some college, associate’s, or technical degree (26.8%); bachelor’s degree (37.5%); and master’s, professional, or doctorate degree (29.5%). Annual household income ranged from less than US$15,000 (3%), US$15,000 to US$30,000 (12.4%), US$30,000 to US$50,000 (21.8%), US$50,000 to US$75,000 (23.5%), US$75,000 to US$100,000 (19.9%), to more than US$100,000 (19.5%). Participants completed the survey online and received a gift card.

Measures

Measures included reports on provision of the EDN, responsivity, child mental health outcomes, and sociomorality. Internal consistency (Cronbach’s α) and reliabilities are provided in Table 1.

Table 1. Means, Standard Deviations, and Reliability Coefficients for Predictors and Factors by Sample.

Variable	M (SD)	α	M (SD)	α	M (SD)	α
	United Sates (n = 451-574)		Switzerland (n = 80-96)		China (n = 365-382)
EDNPR^a	29.48 (3.43)	.72^b	23.84 (9.37)	.64^b	14.50 (4.51)	.75^b
Responsivity	4.43 (0.53)	.70	4.51 (0.41)	.78	3.03 (0.38)	.83
Moral Socialization variables
Internalized conduct	4.32 (1.09)	.86	3.06 (0.75)	.84	4.13 (0.52)	.61
Inhibitory control	4.97 (0.85)	.83	—	—	4.75 (0.79)	.81
Concern after wrongdoing	5.16 (1.18)	.88	3.46 (0.64)	.70	5.21 (0.94)	.82
Empathy	5.31 (0.60)	.86	4.09 (0.54)	.82	5.04 (0.68)	.74
Social Maladaptation variables
Depression	1.99 (0.68)	.92	2.11 (0.75)	.83	1.70 (0.65)	.86
Anxiety	1.46 (0.51)	.94	1.56 (0.44)	.81	2.32 (0.91)	.91
Misbehavior	2.69 (0.47)	.75	2.08 (0.80)	.67	2.24 (0.45)	.81
Social opposition	2.63 (0.98)	.92	2.27 (0.85)	.88	1.98 (0.77)	.89
Social distrust	3.08 (0.82)	.42^c	1.84 (0.88)	.70^c	1.81 (0.79)	.76^c
Social withdrawal	2.43 (0.80)	.91	2.22 (0.80)	.87	2.15 (0.73)	.90
Social Thriving variables
Thriving	5.43 (0.51)	.91	5.03 (0.54)	.78	4.75 (0.78)	.81
Happiness	5.35 (0.63)	.72	4.21 (0.79)	.74	4.50 (1.18)	.62
Social attunement	5.16 (0.72)	.88	4.18 (0.97)	.88	3.88 (1.17)	.94
Social enjoyment	5.61 (0.58)	.93	5.09 (0.70)	.89	4.67 (1.15)	.97
Social consideration	5.00 (0.77)	.84	3.99 (0.82)	.71	3.64 (1.12)	.91
Social imagination	4.97 (0.84)	.81	4.46 (0.83)	.78	3.87 (1.17)	.94

Note. All reliability coefficients are Cronbach’s alpha, unless otherwise noted. EDNPR = Evolved Developmental Niche Provision Report.

Composite score of EDNPR.

Indicates test–retest reliability.

Two-item measure, indicates bivariate correlation.

Evolved Developmental Niche Provision Report (EDNPR)

The EDNPR is a six-item checklist about the child’s experience in the last week (6-point scale; 1= never; 6 = several times a day). It is based on the EDN History for adults (Narvaez, Wang, & Cheng, 2016), which contains 11 items, including questions on breastfeeding and parental responsiveness eliminated here. We used six items appropriate for parents of preschoolers: positive and negative touch, indoor and outdoor free play, and family togetherness inside and outside the home (see supplemental materials for items). Responses were summed to create a composite. Questions represent a checklist of a child’s overall environment (which can vary by calendar, season, and life events), rather than a specific aspect, so 16 mothers provided test–retest reliability over a 2-week interval.

Responsivity

For parental responsivity (Narvaez, Wang, et al., 2013), parents rated seven items (e.g., “I feel that my child and I have warm, intimate times together”) on a 6-point scale (1 = strongly disagree to 6 = strongly agree). Responses were averaged.

Child well-being

Two measures assessed child well-being (Gleason et al., 2016). Thriving includes nine items (e.g., “My child deals well with problems”) scored using a 6-point scale (1 = never to 6 = always). Happiness is a five-item frequency measure (e.g., “Dances spontaneously”) scored on a 6-point scale (1 = never to 6 = more than once a day).

Child ill-being

Three measures assessed ill-being. Depression (Gleason et al., 2016) included 10 items on frequency of childhood depression symptoms (e.g., “How often does your child lack confidence?”) scored on a 6-point scale (1 = never to 6 = several times a day). The 14-item Preschool Anxiety Scale measured anxiety (Spence, Rapee, McDonald, & Ingram, 2001; e.g., “Is afraid of meeting or talking to unfamiliar people”)¹ on a 5-point scale (0 = not true at all to 4 = very often true or not applicable). Misbehavior (Gleason et al., 2016) was measured with five frequency items (e.g., “How often does your child misbehave?”) and was rated on a 5-point scale (1 = never to 5 = several times a day).

Child Moral Socialization

Moral Socialization was measured using 7-point Likert-type scales (1 = extremely untrue of your child to 7 = extremely true of your child). Because self-control is part of successful moral behavior, we measured self-regulation through (a) internalized conduct (nine items; Kochanska, 1994; e.g., “When unsupervised, is likely to stop himself or herself on his or her own when just about to do something wrong”); (b) inhibitory control, using the Child Behavior Questionnaire subscale (CBQ; 13 items; Rothbart, Ahadi, Hershey, & Fisher, 2001; e.g., “Is good at following instructions”); and (c) concern after wrongdoing (eight items; Kochanska, 1994; e.g., “After having done something naughty, asks to be forgiven”). We also measured empathy (Kochanska, 1994; 13 items; e.g., “Will try to comfort or reassure another in distress”).

Child moral temperament

The Child Triune Ethics Measure (CTEM; Gleason et al., 2016) is a parent report of child moral temperament using a 6-point Likert-type scale (1 = never to 6 = several times a day). Its 53 items comprise seven subscales related to sociomoral capacities (Narvaez, 2016). Three are associated with social self-protectionism: opposition, distrust, and withdrawal. Three are associated with social engagement: attunement, enjoyment, and consideration and one with imagination: social imagination.

Analyses

A set of exploratory and confirmatory factor analyses identified three latent child outcome variables. We then tested the relationship between EDNPR and the three factors using structural equation modeling (SEM; Figures 1-3). All models were analyzed using the lavaan package (Rosseel, 2012) in R (R Core Team, 2016). We utilized robust standard error estimates, Yuan–Bentler corrections for model fit indices, and full-information maximum likelihood estimation to deal with missing data (Yuan & Bentler, 2000). Furthermore, we examined model fit based on three standard criteria: robust chi-square, comparative fit index (CFI), and bias-corrected 90% confidence interval (CI) of root mean square error of approximation (RMSEA) (Hooper, Coughlan, & Mullen, 2008).

Figure 1. U.S. Moral Socialization predicted by EDNPR and covariates.
*Note.* Standardized solutions. Robust χ²(23) = 28.92, p = .18; CFI = .99; RMSEA = .033, 90% CI RMSEA = [.00, .04]. EDNPR = Evolved Developmental Niche Provision Report; CFI = comparative fit index; RMSEA = root mean square error of approximation; CI = confidence interval.
*p < .05. **p < .01.

Figure 2. U.S. Social Maladaptation predicted by EDNPR and covariates.
*Note.* Standardized solutions. Robust χ²(38) = 87.44, p < .001; CFI = .94; RMSEA = .05, 90% CI RMSEA = [.04, .06]. EDNPR = Evolved Developmental Niche Provision Report; CFI = comparative fit index; RMSEA = root mean square error of approximation; CI = confidence interval.
*p < .05. **p < .01.

Figure 3. U.S. Social Thriving predicted by EDNPR and covariates.
*Note.* Standardized solutions. Robust χ²(44) = 88.79, p < .001; CFI = .98; RMSEA = .05, 90% CI RMSEA = [.04, .06]. EDNPR = Evolved Developmental Niche Provision Report; CFI = comparative fit index; RMSEA = root mean square error of approximation; CI = confidence interval.
*p < .05. **p < .01.

Results

Means and standard deviations are provided in the first column of Table 1 (see supplemental materials for correlations). Previous work using data from 166 mothers of 3-year-old children (Narvaez, Gleason, et al., 2016) suggested that the child outcomes loaded on three factors. For this study, both parallel and exploratory factor analyses suggested three factors should be retained. Kaiser’s rule also pointed to retaining three factors, with three eigenvalues larger than 1. Therefore, three measurement models were created. First, Moral Socialization was a combination of internalized conduct, inhibitory control, concern after wrongdoing, and empathy (see latent outcome in Figure 1). Within the measurement model, we allowed for the residual covariances between internalized conduct, concern after wrongdoing, and inhibitory control, which created a saturated model. We allowed these residuals to covary based on model modification indices. The same set of residual covariances was applied to Study 2 and Study 3 and were cross-validated (see Study 2 and Study 3 results).

We also explored the relation between EDN-consistent experience and negative outcomes. Social opposition, distrust, and withdrawal, along with anxiety, depression, and misbehavior, loaded on Social Maladaptation (see latent outcome in Figure 2). This model allowed for several residual covariances: social opposition with misbehavior, depression, and distrust; depression with anxiety and misbehavior; and misbehavior with withdrawal. Model fit was adequate: robust χ²(3) = 2.53, p = .47; CFI = 1.00; and 90% CI RMSEA = [.000, .070].

Social Thriving included social attunement, social enjoyment, and social imagination, as well as consideration, thriving, and happiness (see latent outcome in Figure 3). A set of residuals was allowed to be covaried based on model modification indices: well-being with happiness and consideration with imagination and attunement. This model was adequate: robust χ²(6) = 3.45, p = .75; CFI = 1.00; and 90% CI RMSEA = [.000, .037].

Next, SEM models were fitted to test whether EDNPR predicted each outcome while controlling for demographic information. We used the latent child outcome measurement model coefficients as constraints in SEM analyses. Both SEM models fit the data well (see Figures 1-3). As expected, EDNPR positively predicted Moral Socialization (b = 0.17, p = .005) and Social Thriving (b = 0.22, p < .000). Both models controlled for parents’ age, education, income, responsivity, and child’s gender. Using the same controls, we found that EDNPR also negatively predicted Social Maladaptation (b = −0.11, p = .02).

Discussion

The EDNPR scores have good test–retest reliability and predicted the positive child outcomes as expected. As hypothesized, the EDNPR measure predicted both of the factors that emerged from the child outcome data: Moral Socialization and Social Thriving. Moral Socialization aligns with moral development as previously studied longitudinally by Kochanska (2002). We expected the relation between our brief measure of the EDNPR and Moral Socialization because of the theoretical connection between EDN-consistent care and healthy physiological systems that facilitate good self- and emotion regulation (Narvaez, Panksepp, Schore, & Gleason, 2013b). Social Thriving comprises outcomes of engaged social life (e.g., social attunement, thriving). The positive relation between EDNPR and Social Thriving is consistent with views of moral development that relate it to enjoyment of connections with others. Specifically, Social Thriving includes social enjoyment, a component of what Darwin (1871/1981) identified as humanity’s evolved moral sense.

Social Maladaptation includes negative outcomes that represent externalizing and internalizing tendencies that overlap with protectionism in moral temperament. Scores on the EDNPR were negatively related to maladaptation, even when controlling for the effects of parental responsivity and demographics. These results are consistent with work demonstrating relationships between negative attitudes toward EDN-consistent care and negative child outcomes (Gleason et al., 2016).

All latent factors were predicted by EDNPR even after multiple controls. Interestingly, apart from the consistent power of parental responsivity, the significance of controls varied for each model. Gender was also predictive for Social Thriving and Moral Socialization. In both models, the outcome scores were higher for girls than boys. One interpretation of these findings is that girls tend to mature more quickly and be more resilient to stressors than boys (Schore, 2017), and perhaps as a result, their scores on the Moral Socialization and Social Thriving measures were higher. The fact that income was a significant predictor of Moral Socialization corresponds with research connecting socioeconomic status (SES) and socioemotional development (Bradley & Corwyn, 2002), suggesting differences in socialization or a poverty deficit (more toxic stress) might influence factors of self-control, conscience, and empathy. Finally, for Social Maladaptation, only responsivity was predictive along with EDNPR, suggesting that EDNPR may be useful for predicting negative outcomes.

The new measure worked well with a U.S. sample, but would it work with a sample from a different country? Although we expected EDN-consistent behavior to influence sociomoral development regardless of the culture because the basis of these behaviors is purported to be in human evolution, norms for behaviors such as touch, play, and togetherness might differ cross-culturally. To investigate these questions, we collected the same variables in Switzerland.