An Analysis of Vocal Jazz Repertoire by Three Selected Publishing Companies

Awareness of jazz education and its popular appeal to students have grown considerably in the past 50 years (Fisher, 1988; International Association for Jazz Education, 2007; Murphy, 1993). For example, jazz degree programs in higher education institutions have placed more emphasis on the study of jazz; 15 institutions offered a Bachelor of Music degree with a major in Jazz and Studio Music in 1974 (Barr, 1974), whereas 309 colleges and universities offered programs of study in jazz in 2008–2009 (“Jazz Education Guide,” 2008–2009). Of these 309 institutions, 104 schools had 50 or more students enrolled in jazz programs, and 28 schools had 100 or more students in their jazz departments. The growth and development of jazz programs in higher education have also facilitated the appearance of jazz in middle and high schools (Collier, 1994). Many secondary schools offer jazz ensembles, theory, and/or improvisation classes as a part of the daily schedule (Herzig, 1998; Knox, 1996; Wehr-Flowers, 2006). Extracurricular activities in secondary jazz educational settings include contests, festivals, and concerts for both instrumental and vocal jazz ensembles.

Although there is a 60-year history of inclusion of instrumental jazz ensembles in the public schools (MENC: The National Association for Music Education, 1994; Payne, 1973), the more recent popularity of vocal jazz programs has facilitated the need for formal study of vocal jazz pedagogy and specific vocal jazz techniques (Greennagel, 1996). Research investigating specific vocal jazz techniques such as vibrato (Silvera-Jenson, 2005), articulation styles (Cooper, 1992), choral jazz arranging (Regin, 2003; Smalley, 1972), and accompanying (Israels, 1990; Roothaan, 1999; Rose, 1985) has helped solidify this medium into a viable experience that can be taught in the schools. Several practitioners in the field have experimented with various strategies for scat singing (Baker, 2010), shakes (Aitken, 1984), inflections (Schwartz, 1979), staging (Zegree, 2002), and amplification (Aitken, 1985). Additionally, with the appearance of vocal jazz charts, which include solo and improvisation sections, jazz repertoire has been identified as an important development in choral program performance literature (White, 1982).

Extensive reviews of choral music education research have revealed a lack of vocal jazz studies in the extant literature. In a summary of choral music education research, Gonzo (1973) concluded that vocal repertoire research was “sparse” and “did not seem to constitute major research activity” (p. 21). In a follow-up study of dissertations and professional journals, Hylton (1983) cited extensive choral music education research in the areas of choral rehearsal techniques/conducting and noted that studies of repertoire were lacking. Although Grant and Norris (1998) identified 11 choral literature studies in a subsequent review of choral music education research, none of these investigations included vocal jazz. The current study will address the need for and relevance of a vocal jazz repertoire analysis.

Improvisation has been noted as an integral component in the performance of jazz and an important, yet misunderstood or neglected, concept in the field of music education (Gridley, 2008; Madura, 1996; Wehr-Flowers, 2006). Standard number three of the National Standards for Music Education (MENC, 1994), which provides benchmarks to determine how well students are learning and performing, states that students should improvise melodies, variations, and accompaniments. Despite this emphasis on teaching improvisation, studies have concluded that teachers are ill prepared and/or reluctant to employ improvisational techniques in the classroom (Bell, 2003; Byo, 1999; Knobloch, 1985; Lehman, 1995). “Classically oriented” university students often exhibited anxiety when asked to demonstrate or study the spontaneous, improvisatory, ambiguous, open forms, and kinesthetic movement of the less rigid style of jazz performance (Elliott, 1986, p. 46).

Research relating to confidence in and learning to perform jazz improvisation has found mixed results (Flack, 2004; Heil, 2005; Ward-Steinman, 2007, 2008; Wehr-Flowers, 2006). For example, Ward-Steinman (2007) found that intense and comprehensive instruction in jazz listening, singing, transcribing, arranging, and improvising increased the improvisational teaching confidence levels of music education majors enrolled in a 6-week vocal jazz course. Heil (2005), however, concluded in a pretest–posttest design that formal vocal jazz improvisation instructional materials had no effect on high school students’ attitudes toward singing jazz. He did find that there was a significant effect on students’ ability to sing appropriate tonal material over the rhythm changes of harmonic progressions.

Vocal jazz repertoire occasionally includes improvisation sections within the charts. Arrangers of these charts designate the improvisation sections either by transcribing solos with scat syllables, including performance notes to improvise a melody, or by inserting measures of rests with instructions to improvise over chord changes. Although there are advantages and disadvantages to each method, successful improvisation may be based on the teachers’ and students’ abilities to interpret the notes of the arranger or composer. To date, there is only one research study that has focused on the publication of vocal jazz ensemble repertoire and no comprehensive database of vocal jazz ensemble music, which includes existing improvisation opportunities. In a survey of Texas choral directors, Cruse (1999) cited 10 of the most common “moderately difficult” vocal jazz arrangements for high school vocal ensembles by compiling a list of selections with title and composer categories. There was no discussion or inclusion of improvisation opportunities in his study.

Therefore, the purpose of this study is to assimilate SATB (soprano, alto, tenor, bass) vocal jazz octavos from multiple publishers and build a database of existing high school vocal jazz ensemble repertoire. The research questions guiding this study were the following:

• Research Question 1: Who are some of the most prolific arrangers/composers of vocal jazz music?

• Research Question 2: Are there opportunities for vocalists to improvise?

• Research Question 3: How are improvisation opportunities indicated in the score?

• Research Question 4: What titles appear most frequently?

• Research Question 5: What styles of vocal jazz appear most frequently?

• Research Question 6: What are the most common types of instrumental accompaniment forces?

• Research Question 7: Are there any significant differences between publishing companies and the number of arrangers/composers, song titles, improvisational opportunities, vocal jazz styles, or instrumental accompaniment forces?

Method

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Selection of Repertoire

The repertoire (N = 150) for this study was collected from three publishers: Alfred, Hal Leonard, and Shawnee Press. Selection of these publishing companies was based on (a) the American Choral Directors Association’s website listing of major vocal jazz repertoire publishers (American Choral Directors Association, n.d.), (b) the accessibility of their arrangements to the high school singer, (c) their marketability and familiarity to the high school teacher, and (d) their identification as major sources of vocal jazz repertoire by widely accepted authorities in the field, Vijay Singh (2008) and Stephen Zegree (2002). The music in this study was selected from the 2008–2009 catalogues of these three publishing companies.

It was determined a priori to select jazz repertoire available only in single SATB octavo format. Medleys, revues, choral/instrumental packs, and other voicings of selections (SSA, SAB, TTB, etc.) were not included in this study. Also determined a priori was that selected pieces had to be currently in print and readily available through J.W. Pepper & Son, Inc., a major national distributor of sheet music.

The total number of octavos in each publisher’s 2008–2009 catalogue varied: Shawnee Press, n = 70; Alfred/Warner Brothers, n = 114; Hal Leonard, n = 188. To analyze a proportionate number of selections from each publisher and make possible future comparisons between the three companies, individual publisher catalogue listings were randomized by Research Randomizer software program. These three lists were then downloaded into a Microsoft Excel spreadsheet and the first 50 pieces from each publisher listing was sampled. This created a total of 150 octavos from the three companies.

Classification of Repertoire

Once the list of publications was downloaded into an Excel spreadsheet, a Microsoft Access database was created with the following categories of classification for each piece: Title, Composer/Arranger, Style/Genre, Publisher, Year of publication/Original Year of Publication, Vendor Number, Accompaniment, Solos, and Improvisation. According to the MENC (now NAfME) website (Bunge, 2004), the classification of jazz literature may be divided into four main styles: Swing, Ballad, Latin, and Contemporary (any piece composed after 1960). These styles served as a basis for the classification of each octavo as indicated by the publisher or observed during the score analysis. Prerecorded accompaniments were excluded from the accompaniment category. However, optional instrument packages and instrumental passages either printed in the choral score or purchasable as parts were included as accompaniments. Solos were determined by voice part and indicated as “voice” if no specific part assignment was evident in the printed score. Improvisation opportunities were also noted as they appeared in the score.

Results

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A total of 150 octavos from the three publishers, Alfred, Hal Leonard, and Shawnee Press, were analyzed; sums and percentages were obtained for each research question. For the first research question on the most prolific arrangers/composers of vocal jazz music, results indicate that 3 arrangers/composers had more than 10 charts each: Kirby Shaw, n = 22; Steve Zegree, n = 18; and Darmon Meader, n = 11. These arrangers/composers had a combined total of 51 charts or 34% of the total number of compositions. The remaining arrangers’/composers’ (n = 40) charts ranged from 1 to 9 per individual (M = 2.5). Twenty-three of the sampled arrangers/composers included 2 or more charts. Kirby Shaw and Phil Mattson charts were published by all three companies. Ten arrangers/composers were published by two of the selected companies, and the remaining 11 arrangers/composers were published exclusively by Alfred, Hal Leonard, or Shawnee Press. See the arrangers/composers listed from largest to smallest number of compositions in Table 1.

Table 1. Jazz SATB (Soprano, Alto, Tenor, Bass) Octavo Listing

Table 1. Jazz SATB (Soprano, Alto, Tenor, Bass) Octavo Listing

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Of the 150 octavos investigated, 23% (n = 34) of the charts included opportunities for improvisation, whereas the remaining 77% (n = 116) of the charts did not. The improvisation sections within the 34 charts were assigned to one of the following categories: (a) transcribed scat solos, (b) notated melodies, and (c) instruction without notation. Transcribed scat solos included charts with instructions to “ad lib” or “improvise” over transcribed melodies and charts with specific scat lyrics beneath the given melodies. Notated melody categorization included a transcribed melody without scat syllables or lyrics. The instruction without notation category contained score markings that varied from performance notes in the preface to repeated choral vamps with “solo improvisation” appearing above the staves. Although a majority of the charts did not indicate any opportunities for vocal improvisation (n = 116 or 77.3%), the remaining charts did include either transcribed scat solos or notated melodies as guides for improvisation (n = 18 or 12%) or instruct the performer to improvise without any given notation (n = 16 or 10.6%). The list of complete song titles with type of improvisation opportunity is in Table 1.

A few titles (n = 13) appear twice in the study: Alexander’s Ragtime Band; As Time Goes By; Autumn Leaves; Here’s that Rainy Day; I Got Rhythm; I’m Always Chasing Rainbows; My Funny Valentine; Over the Rainbow; Sing, Sing, Sing; Take the “A” Train; Tuxedo Junction; The Way You Look Tonight; and When I Fall in Love. These standard selections represent music from the first half of the 20th century known as the Big Band/Swing era. Additionally, the 1930 ballad, Embraceable You, appears three times in the listing. None of the contemporary titles were repeated as shown in Table 1.

An analysis of jazz styles represented by the three publishers indicates that Swing is the most frequently published (n = 65 or 43.3%), followed by Ballad (n = 45 or 30%), Contemporary (n = 29 or 19.3%), and Latin (n = 11 or 7.3%). The titles Autumn Leaves and Here’s that Rainy Day appear multiple times but are arranged in different style categories including swing, Latin, and ballad. See the complete list of song titles by jazz style in Table 1.

To determine whether charts used accompaniment, songs were placed in either the accompanied selections category (n = 119) or the none/a cappella selections category (n = 31). Additionally, the accompanied selections were divided into three subcategories: (a) standard combo, which includes piano, guitar, bass, and drums; (b) piano only; or (c) augmented standard combo, which includes the standard combo or piano as well as additional brass, woodwind, string, or other keyboard instruments. The most common types of instrumental forces were the standard combo (n = 48) followed by piano only (n = 39). I’m Always Chasing Rainbows by Donald Moore was the only accompanied chart that did not include piano in the standard combo grouping. The remaining accompanied charts augmented the standard combo or piano with additional instruments (n = 32). Sing, Sing, Sing by Jay Althouse was the only chart in more than one category as the publisher offered accompaniments for a standard combo or big band.

When the number of charts by each publisher was compared by variable (number of composers per publisher, repeated titles, styles, improvisation opportunities, and accompaniments), there were no significant differences between the publishers and the number of arrangers/ composers, repeated titles, and improvisational opportunities. However, chi-square analyses revealed significant differences between publishers: χ²(2, N = 65) = 10.59, p < .01, with 68% (n = 34) of Alfred, 36% (n = 18) of Shawnee, and 26% (n = 13) of Hal Leonard publications, respectively, indicating swing style as a percentage of their individually sampled selections. Additionally, significant differences were found with the contemporary style: χ²(2, N = 29) = 6.25, p < .05; in 8% (n = 4) of Alfred, 20% (n = 10) of Hal Leonard, and 30% (n = 15) of Shawnee Press publications, respectively. Analysis of the accompaniment variable, none/a cappella: χ²(2, N = 31) = 8.61, p < .01; revealed significant differences, with Hal Leonard (36%, n = 18) publishing more a cappella selections than Alfred (8%, n = 6) and Shawnee Press (14%, n = 7) combined.

Discussion

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Several interesting results were found within this investigation. First, vocal jazz music publishers produce many charts by select individuals, with 3 out of 43 of the arranger/composers publishing 34% of the total number of selections. It is interesting this data set’s most prolific composer published in all three companies, and the next two most prolific composers (of the 150 sampled titles) each published in two of the three publishing companies. A possible reason for this result may be because of the fact that there are relatively few vocal jazz arrangers/composers actively creating charts. However, questions of whether publishing companies are highlighting a select few arrangers/composers or whether these publishers are seeking/wanting other arrangers and composers to contribute more vocal jazz selections to the existing body of repertoire have yet to be answered. Furthermore, the lack of variety in arrangers/composers among these publishers may limit choice options for choral directors and, as a result, discourage them from programming vocal jazz.

Improvisation is considered to be an integral component of jazz music, however, more than three fourths (77.3%) of the vocal jazz charts within this study made no reference to this performance practice in the printed score. Many authorities in the field (Gridley, 1994; International Association for Jazz Education, 2007; Zegree, 2002) have identified improvisation as a cornerstone of jazz music. It is also widely accepted that serious jazz musicians possess the talent and ability to improvise. The omission of improvisation in so many charts seems to be contrary to common and authentic performance practice in the realm of jazz music. Perhaps there is the perception among arrangers/composers that music educators are not prepared to teach improvisation. Such a perception would concur with the findings of Bell (2003), Byo (1999), Knobloch (1985), and Lehman (1995).

A comparison of vocal jazz styles most commonly found within the selections investigated revealed that swing and ballad were more prevalent than Latin and contemporary. The imbalance of jazz style diversity limits the availability of varied repertoire from which the conductor may choose. The reasons for this result are beyond the scope of this study. However, one might contemplate that the law of supply and demand may dictate the styles of music each publisher chooses to print. That is, if choral directors are programming more swing and ballad selections than contemporary or Latin selections, then arrangers and composers are writing more charts in these styles to market and publish their work. It may also be that swing and ballad titles are easily recognized as standards from the golden age of jazz (Carmichael, Gershwin, Porter, Rodgers and Hart, etc.), and as a result, these titles are considered to be more marketable.

Finally, an awareness of vocal jazz accompaniment textures and instrumentations is demonstrated by the balance of printed materials for a variety of ensemble types: a cappella, 21%; standard combo, 32%; piano, 26%; and various instrument combination, 21%. Although Hal Leonard published more a cappella charts (n = 18) than Alfred (n = 6) and Shawnee Press (n = 7) combined, there were no significant differences between other styles of accompaniment among these three publishers. It should be noted, however, that this study was limited to a random sample of each publisher’s vocal jazz inventory with 50 titles from each of the three publishers’ catalogues. The studied titles thus represented 71% from Shawnee Press, 44% from Alfred, and 27% from Hal Leonard, respectively. It is possible that some composers or styles were missed by using this particular random sampling approach, and it may worth further examination of trends within each publishing company.

Although these findings are limited to this particular study and should not be generalized to other jazz publishing companies, data from this study seem to suggest that arrangers, composers, and publishing companies should consider providing students with more opportunities to improvise in the printed scores of vocal jazz. The establishment of this technique as a national standard for music education and its acceptance as an integral component of the jazz genre deem improvisation to be a worthy skill for students to practice and perform. Future research may lead to more information about this topic in an effort to ascertain why arrangers, composers, and publishing companies seem to omit improvisation in their printed scores.

References

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