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Abstract
College marching bands are a large and visible part of American music education. Institutions of higher learning have benefited from the existence of marching bands, as they serve as a powerful recruitment tool and an essential public relations vehicle for music departments and universities. The benefit students may receive from marching band participation is influenced by a variety of social and educational factors. This article is a review of literature on the benefits of marching bands and band participation for universities and college students. The review is organized as follows: (a) brief introduction and methodology, (b) benefits for colleges and universities, (c) benefits for college students, (d) challenges for college students, and (e) summary and recommendations. This article presents scholarship on the possible benefits of marching bands for students and universities in an effort to aid recruitment and inform administrators of the value a marching band brings to their school.
Introduction
Marching bands have served as a large and visible part of American music education for over 100 years. While they are valuable to music programs and schools by supporting music education, marching bands have been the subject of much debate among music educators and school administrators, often centered on musical merits, budgetary concerns, and the time commitment for students (Dunnigan, 2007; Garrison, 1986; Revelli, 1979; Schwadron, 1974). Band directors often field questions from aspiring college freshman who are trying to decide if college marching band participation is a good decision (Bellomy, 2014).
The purpose of this article is to present scholarship on the possible benefits of marching bands for college students and universities in an effort to aid marching band recruitment and to inform administrators of the value a high-quality marching band brings to their school. This review will report selected research and relevant literature on college marching bands. A list of topics, relevant to the benefits and challenges of marching bands for students and universities, was compiled by analyzing and sorting related literature that addresses the broad question, “Why marching band?” Recently, because of funding issues at one university, a question was posed to the membership of the College Band Directors National Association: “Has there been any review of the literature focused on the benefits to students of marching band participation?” This article is an initial response to that query. Literature selected for inclusion in this review met the following criteria: (a) the literature was published between 1916 and 2016; (b) the literature appeared in a peer-reviewed scholarly or research journal; (c) in cases where peer-reviewed research on relevant topics was unavailable or extremely limited, published books, recent news articles, or committee-reviewed articles, such as dissertations or master’s theses, were included. This article includes marching band literature related to university public relations, recruitment, student education, student health, and time commitment. A summary of recommendations for marching band directors and school administrators is presented at the conclusion of this article.
Benefits for Colleges and Universities
The earliest continuously operating university band can be traced to the University of Notre Dame, South Bend, Indiana, in 1840 (Wells, 1976). When college football appeared at Notre Dame in 1887, a band was on hand and ready to play (University of Notre Dame, 2016). Since then, school administrators have realized the impact that strong marching band programs have on public relations at school events (Foster, 1978; Schwadron, 1974). Wickes (1978) stated that school administrators encourage marching and pep band participation at athletic events, hoping to attract members of the general public who would have no reason to attend other than to support a friend or family member in the band. Strong band performances can elicit a positive spirit at school and community events and provide esprit de corps among band and audience members (Buckton, 1929; Foster, 1978; Lee, 1955; Madsen, Plack, & Dunnigan, 2007; Revelli, 1979; Wickes, 1978).
Public Relations
Despite the abundance of university concert bands and other instrumental ensembles, the general public often perceives the appearances and performances of marching bands as representative of the value and quality of entire music programs (Foster, 1978; Kearns, 2011). Buckton (1929) stated, “A good band is a fine publicity medium when used on tours, broadcasts, [and] concerts . . . many college and university bands have a high publicity value where a fine organization has been developed” (p. 3). In fact, the high visibility of marching bands is often the main reason for university music budget support (Holvik, 1971).
Recruitment
Marching bands also offer recruitment value for universities. Buyer (2009) compiled statistical data for seven large university bands in the southern and eastern United States, and found that music majors comprised only 15% to 25% of total band membership. In a survey of undergraduate marching band students, Madsen et al. (2007) reported that many students’ university choice was based on an aspiration to be in the marching band. Furthermore, the aspiration may outweigh other reasons for attending the university, such as academic reputation and cost-effectiveness. Therefore, the desire to be a member of a strong and reputable marching band may serve as strong motivation for aspiring freshman to choose a particular university (Dunnigan, 2007).
Recruitment is needed for the sustainment of marching band programs (Markworth, 2008). University music departments use a wide array of recruitment techniques in efforts to sustain enrollment including brochures, phones calls, personal visits from faculty, and videos of performing ensembles (Straw, 1996). Videos of performing ensembles, including marching bands, may be the strongest recruitment tool for music departments (Alosi, 2012). Carlson (1999) surveyed administrators at higher education institutions that were members of the National Association of Schools of Music. In the administrators’ opinion, performing ensemble reputation was considered the most important factor for incoming freshman during the college choice process.
Benefits for Students
According to Haynie (1971), the reputation of college marching bands is founded in three distinct roles: entertainment, education, and performance. College bands have often given emphasis to entertainment, particularly at athletic events, but in recent years, bands have given an increased amount of emphasis to the roles of education and artistic performance (Bailey, Cannon, & Payne, 2015). Education in marching bands has been defined as follows:
Activities in which the primary purpose is the development and cultivation of musical disciplines, as in the training of future professional performers and teachers or as in the enlargement of musical taste in audiences and participating students through exposure to all levels of band literature. (Haynie, 1971, pp. 1–2)
The educational role of marching bands can be expanded to include all members of the band, regardless of academic major.
Student Education
A college marching band can offer several educational benefits to students, such as lessons in cooperation, leadership, responsibility, and mental discipline by enabling students to assume leadership roles and practice teaching and decision-making skills (Lee, 1955; Madsen et al., 2007; Parks, 1984; Revelli, 1979; Shellahamer, Swearingen, & Woods, 1986; Wickes, 1978). Students learn valuable leadership skills by taking active roles as a leader in marching bands (Richards, 2012).
High school band directors have indicated that marching band show design and rehearsing skills are strongly needed in preparation for good teaching (Williamson, 2009). In a recent study, public school band directors perceived their participation in college marching band to have been an effective way to develop effective music teaching skills (Richards, 2012). Enrollment in marching band techniques courses also provide valuable experiences for students, although there is often insufficient time in the curriculum for the inclusion of those courses (Ammann, 1989; Legette, 1988). To address this time limit, Teske (1985) developed a linear programmed textbook that covered basic marching band charting techniques, which could be completed independently by undergraduates with no previous charting experience. However, the Teske text included only static concert formations because transition drills may have proved too difficult for students without marching band experience.
Marching bands’ educational benefits may also be extended to students through cross-curricular teaching, such as the use of mathematics in drill movements. The foundation of drill is based on a theory of predetermined paces and intervals, computed for each individual in a marching band field show (Gall, 1974). Casavant, credited as the innovator of precision drill, published a series of books on drill theory in the 1960s (Jones, 1998). Titled Exhibition Marching, the concepts of time, motion, step-style, alignment, and individual responsibility on the field were comprehensively explained in print for the first time (Casavant, 1960). Bill Moffit’s Patterns of Motion, published in 1964, further developed Casavant’s theories and offered ready-made marching formulas (W. C. Moffit, 1964; White, 1979). These concepts and mathematical formulas, revolutionized and modernized by drum and bugle corps competitions in the 1970s, are still used today, requiring students to make quick adjustments in rehearsals and performances (Bailey et al., 2015).
College marching bands may also contribute to students’ aesthetic education. Aesthetic education has been defined as developing sensitivity to the “area of human growth and development that assists in achieving perception of and insight into human feeling and human emotion” (Abeles, Hoffer, & Klotman, 1994, p. 103). Steckel (2006) investigated optimal aesthetic experience, or flow, among college marching band students. Jackson and Csikszentmihalyi (1999) defined flow as an intrinsically motivating experience for an individual where total absorption in an activity occurs to the point that all other distractions disappear. Flow occurs at the point where the challenge of the task is matched by the ability of the person performing the task, which allows activities to be more enjoyable and builds self-confidence in the participants (Csikszentmihalyi, 1990). Steckel (2006) found that college marching band students do experience flow, facilitated by good mental preparation and positive attitudes. Flow was not facilitated by pep talks prior to performances, being alone, or having no concern for others. Knowing the flow facilitators for marching band students is an important element for any director working to enable the desired results in attitude and performance (Steckel, 2006).
Social Interaction
Band participation provides a means for social interaction and self-expression at a critical period in students’ lives (Kelly, 2015; Lee, 1955). Many college freshmen have an expectation that ensemble participation will provide valuable social experiences (Wine, 2000). Furthermore, some students characterize marching band as a family and a “home away from home” (Kuntz, 2011, p. 26). This is no surprise, as marching band students spend long hours together throughout the marching season (Sarver, 2014).
Student Health
While a significant amount of extant research has focused on the educational benefit of marching band participation, researchers have recently started to investigate the effects of marching band participation on students’ physical fitness. Strand and Sommer (2005) measured 16 college marching band members wearing heart rate monitors in marching rehearsals and found that participants did not demonstrate significant amounts of physical activity. However, Weren (2012) found a significant difference between the average heart rate of participants during standing and playing rehearsals. Cowen (2006) discovered that college marching band members took an average of 13,987 steps on game day and 8,337 steps on nongame days. In a video news report, Edwards (2008) stated that heart rate and oxygen intake measurements indicated tenor drum musicians expend energy at a rate comparable with a marathon runner in midrace. Further research has shown that marching band members, participating in a summer band camp, displayed an overall negative energy balance, as participants’ caloric intake was less than the amount of calories expended (Wenta, 2011).
Physiological research conducted on 40 marching band students explored the use of expiratory muscle training to increase performance using high-intensity, low-repetition expiratory exercises (Sapienza, Davenport, & Martin, 2002). After 2 weeks of training 5 days per week, expiratory pressure was significantly increased, regardless of the instrument played by the student. The researchers indicated that marching band participation might be an effective and efficient training activity for increasing expiratory pressure. Similar to limb muscle training, increased expiratory training can positively influence students’ lives by increasing speech production and breath support (Sapienza et al., 2002).
Erdmann, Graham, Radlo, and Knepler (2003) investigated adolescents’ energy cost in marching band by measuring performance activities on a treadmill. Results indicated the energy demand for high school marching band participants in a marching simulation to be in the range that classified it as a moderate-intensity activity. Pascoe, Smith, Strecker, and Good (2005) recorded heart rates during actual pregame and halftime game performances, and reported participants’ heart rates were maintained at 70% to 85% capacity. Sharp, Wadsworth, and Pascoe (2007) measured physical activity during a parade and halftime performance where 16 college students wore sensory armbands. Results indicated that physical output differed by band members’ instrument and section.
Marching band may also affect the long-term health of students. Vallee and Leander (2013) studied college marching band members before and after the marching band season and reported a significant change in pre- to postseason cardiorespiratory fitness but not in body composition. Levy, Statham, and VanDoren (2013) examined body mass index of 501 drum and bugle corps marching musicians at the beginning and end of a competitive season and found significant reductions over the course of the season.
Challenges for Students
Time Commitment
Despite the numerous possible benefits for students participating in collegiate marching bands, a few significant challenges exist. Teaching and learning drill for field shows takes time; therefore college marching band participation requires a significant time commitment (Hatheway & Chesky, 2013). Game day activities, including pep rallies, parades, and field show performances, can last an entire day (Sarver, 2014). Too many of these activities may result in burnout (Bernhard, 2005; McManus, 1984). In an effort to manage time wisely, band directors often create a delicate balance between rehearsal time and performance standards (Dunnigan, 2007). Citing a concern for adequate study time, many high school band students cease active participation in band after high school (Moder, 2013). However, recent research has indicated that marching band members are able to study at a rate similar to students not in marching band (Cumberledge, 2015). Opportunities for social interaction, along with added perks such as performing away from campus, may outweigh the large time commitment (Kelly, 2015).
Despite the substantial time commitment, many high school students choose to continue marching in college bands. Some students may derive a personal satisfaction from the feeling of self-worth that marching band provides (Isch, 1965). The motivation for students to participate in music activities may be based more on extrinsic than intrinsic factors (Faber, 2010). Moder (2013) suggested that participants’ intrinsically motivated desire to continue playing was largely due to the enjoyment started in beginning band and continued through high school. Again, the social aspects of athletic band activities appear to partially influence continued participation (Kelly, 2015; Richards, 2012; Stewart, 2005; Wine, 2000). For many students, the synergy created in musical performances can be felt at the first downbeat (Edwards, 2008). The need to feel this recurring energy may urge continued participation in college bands (Wickes, 1978).
Student Health Concerns
In addition to time commitments, participation in marching band requires intense physical and mental demands related to performing musical instruments while marching as well as routine exposures to elevated noise levels and, at times, hazardous weather conditions (Hatheway & Chesky, 2013). Most marching band injures have typically involved the lower extremities (Kilanowski, 2008; Mehler, Brink, Eickmeier, Hesse, & McGuire, 1996). In a one-season survey of marching band injuries at a Big Ten University, Mehler et al. (1996) found that most student injuries were self-limiting and required no medical attention. D. M. Moffit, Russ, and Mansell (2015) tallied self-reported student injuries over the course of 10 marching band field practices and found that 191 injuries were reported in 1,540 individual practice exposures. Interpreters of these data should be cautioned that a research-oriented focus on injuries a priori might have resulted in more self-reported injuries. More research into injury rates and the impact on those injuries on student’s physical health is needed.
College marching band students’ auditory health is also at risk, as those students are regularly subjected to elevated noise levels (Chesky, 2008; Washnik, Phillips, & Teglas, 2016). Students are reluctant to wear hearing protection because of sound quality reductions (Jin, 2013). In a recent investigation of 90 college instrumental music students who participated in band, 12% reported a history of hearing loss and over one third reported tinnitus (Olson, Gooding, Shikoh, & Graf, 2016). Based on sound duration, frequency, and intensity, Miller, Stewart, and Lehman (2007) reported that college marching band students were cumulatively exposed to 170 times the allowable daily noise exposure. It should be noted that noise exposure is highly variable depending on location within the band, proximity to other instruments, acoustics, and type of music played. Future research is needed to investigate the variables that may affect students’ hearing health.
Any mention of student health in marching bands must also include a discussion about hazing. Although individual occurrences of extreme hazing in marching band are uncommon, the circumstances surround the tragic hazing-related events at schools such as Florida A&M University have rightly focused attention on the safety and well-being of all students (Etters, 2016). Even with the installation of strict antihazing policies, nearly 30% of college marching band students have reported observing hazing behaviors (Silveira & Hudson, 2015).
Summary and Recommendations
Based on extant research, university administrators are encouraged to support and develop marching band programs for the benefit of each university community. Marching bands have been found to provide esprit de corps for school events (Lee, 1955; Revelli, 1979; Wickes, 1978) and can serve as a powerful recruitment tool for music departments and universities (Foster, 1978; Madsen et al., 2007).
Marching bands also exist as a means for universities to educate students. Very few activities use the cognitive, aesthetic, and physical domains of learning to the extent required in marching band (Morrison, 2004). Students who participate in college marching band may receive a variety of social and musical experiences, as well as opportunities for personal growth (Richards, 2012). Many students enroll in college bands at a time when social interaction is most needed (Kelly, 2015). Students may also be provided an aesthetic education through the musical experiences created by responsible band directors who operate educationally effective marching band programs (Kearns, 2011; Revelli, 1979). It is recommended that directors promote and foster the natural educational environment inherent in college marching bands.
College marching bands participation presents challenges, including the significant time commitment from students. Many high school band students cease active participation in band after high school because of concerns for adequate study time (Moder, 2013). Recent research has indicated that marching band members are able to study at a rate similar to students not in marching band (Cumberledge, 2015). Additionally, for many students, the social and educational benefits may outweigh the large time commitment (Kelly, 2015). Band directors are encouraged to communicate these research results when recruiting; however, students’ decisions to participate may simply be reduced to being based on personal priorities.
Marching band directors’ primary concern should be to monitor the health, safety, and well-being of their students. Several educational materials can be developed to aid directors in this effort, such as National Weather Service Heat Index charts and fluid intake recommendations, as students generally do not want to call attention to themselves by leaving the rehearsal field and hope the symptoms they feel will disappear (Vepraskas, 2002). Students can also wear a water bottle housed in an insulated belt, wear light clothing, and spend breaks in shaded areas (Kilanowski, 2008). These precautions may result in better student deportment and health during field rehearsals. Additionally, directors should be on watch for any hazing-related behaviors. Efforts to stop hazing must start with meticulously planned antihazing policies, critically evaluating band traditions that pose a threat to student health. Certainly, universities want to avoid controversy such as the recent probation placed on the marching band at Stanford (Stanford University, 2015). Marching band orientations can serve as a starting place to educate students about antihazing policies.
Extant research has also indicated that college musicians may exhibit greater declines in hearing than the general population and are at particular risk because they rehearse and perform daily in loud environments (Olson et al., 2016). Due to the lengthy rehearsal times with high–sound level exposures, it is recommended that marching band directors place their students in a hearing conservation program, including the purchase of earplugs (Jin, 2013).
This article provides scholarship about topics relevant to college marching bands to aid band recruitment, allow band directors to compile provide budgetary justification, and to inform school administrators of the value of marching bands. However, college marching bands may be found in a variety of sizes, perform in a variety of styles, and be guided by a variety of philosophies. It is likely that specific college marching band experiences vary widely from band to band. Additional research is necessary, including investigations of aesthetic benefits, applications of experiences learned through student leadership, long-term health of marching band students, occurrences of hazing and responses to hazing policies, and marching band burnout from the student perspective. Continued research of college marching bands will benefit universities and students in the future.
Declaration of Conflicting Interests
The author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.
Funding
The author(s) received no financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.
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