Abstract
Numerous studies indicate that civil society organizations create cultural change by deploying mainstream messages that resonate with prevailing discursive themes. Yet these case studies of highly influential organizations obscure the much larger population that have little or no impact. It is therefore unclear whether civil society organizations create cultural change by deploying mainstream discourses or if they become part of the mainstream because of their success. I present an evolutionary theory of how discursive fields settle after major historical ruptures that highlights framing, social networks, and emotional energy. To illustrate this theory, I use plagiarism detection software to compare 1,084 press releases about Muslims produced by 120 civil society organizations to 50,407 newspaper articles and television transcripts produced between 2001 and 2008. Although most organizations deployed pro-Muslim discourses after the September 11th attacks, I show that anti-Muslim fringe organizations dominated the mass media via displays of fear and anger. Institutional amplification of this emotional energy, I argue, created a gravitational pull or “fringe effect” that realigned inter-organizational networks and altered the contours of mainstream discourse itself.
References
|
Abbott, Andrew . 1997. “On the Concept of Turning Point.” Comparative Social Research 16:85–106. Google Scholar | |
|
Adams, Julia, Clemens, Elisabeth S., Orloff, Ann Shola. 2005. Remaking Modernity. Durham, NC: Duke University Press. Google Scholar | Crossref | |
|
Aldrich, Howard . 1979. Organizations and Environments. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press. Google Scholar | |
|
Alexander, Jeffrey C. 2006. The Civil Sphere. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press. Google Scholar | Crossref | |
|
Altheide, David L. 2002. Creating Fear: News and the Construction of Crisis. Piscataway, NJ: Transaction Publishers. Google Scholar | |
|
Altheide, David L. 2006. Terrorism and the Politics of Fear. Oxford, UK: AltaMira Press. Google Scholar | SAGE Journals | |
|
Amenta, Edwin, Caren, Neal, Chiarello, Elizabeth, Su, Yang. 2010. “The Political Consequences of Social Movements.” Annual Review of Sociology 36:287–307. Google Scholar | Crossref | ISI | |
|
Amenta, Edwin, Caren, Neal, Olasky, Sheera Joy, Stobaugh, James E. 2009. “All the Movements Fit to Print: Who, What, When, Where, and Why SMO Families Appeared in the New York Times in the Twentieth Century.” American Sociological Review 74:636–56. Google Scholar | SAGE Journals | ISI | |
|
Aminzade, Ron, McAdam, Doug. 2001. “Emotions and Contentious Politics.” Mobilization: An International Quarterly 7:107–109. Google Scholar | |
|
Anderson, Benedict . 1993. Imagined Communities. New York: Verso. Google Scholar | |
|
Andrews, Kenneth, Biggs, Michael. 2006. “The Dynamics of Protest Diffusion: Movement Organizations, Social Networks, and News Media in the 1960 Sit-Ins.” American Sociological Review 71:752–77. Google Scholar | SAGE Journals | ISI | |
|
Andrews, Kenneth, Caren, Neal. 2010. “Making the News: Movement Organizations, Media Attention, and the Public Agenda.” American Sociological Review 75:841–66. Google Scholar | SAGE Journals | ISI | |
|
Andrews, Kenneth, Edwards, Bob. 2004. “Advocacy Organizations in the U.S. Political Process.” Annual Review of Sociology 30:479–506. Google Scholar | Crossref | ISI | |
|
Andrews, Kenneth, Hunter, Anne, Edwards, Bob. 2012. “Methodological Strategies for Examining Populations of Social Movement Organizations.” Working paper, Department of Sociology, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, NC. Google Scholar | |
|
Armstrong, Elizabeth A. 2002. Forging Gay Identities: Organizing Sexuality in San Francisco, 1950–1994. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. Google Scholar | |
|
Armstrong, Elizabeth A., Bernstein, Mary. 2008. “Culture, Power, and Institutions: A Multi-Institutional Politics Approach to Social Movements.” Sociological Theory 26:74–99. Google Scholar | SAGE Journals | ISI | |
|
Bail, Christopher A. 2008. “The Configuration of Symbolic Boundaries against Immigrants in Europe.” American Sociological Review 73:37–59. Google Scholar | SAGE Journals | ISI | |
|
Bakalian, Anny, Bozorgmehr, Mehdi. 2009. Backlash 9/11: Middle Eastern and Muslim Americans Respond, 1st ed. Berkeley: University of California Press. Google Scholar | |
|
Baldassarri, Delia, Bearman, Peter. 2007. “Dynamics of Political Polarization.” American Sociological Review 72:784–811. Google Scholar | SAGE Journals | ISI | |
|
Bao, Shenghua, Xu, Shengliang, Zhang, Li, Yan, Rong, Su, Zhong, Han, Dingyi, Yu, Yong. 2011. “Mining Social Emotions from Affective Text.” IEEE Transactions on Knowledge and Data Engineering 24:1658–70. Google Scholar | Crossref | ISI | |
|
Bartley, Tim . 2007. “How Foundations Shape Social Movements: The Construction of an Organizational Field and the Rise of Forest Certification.” Social Problems 54:229–55. Google Scholar | Crossref | ISI | |
|
Baumgartner, Frank, Jones, Bryan. 1993. Agendas and Instability in American Politics, 1st ed. Chicago: University Of Chicago Press. Google Scholar | |
|
Bearman, Peter . 1993. Relations into Rhetorics: Local Elite Social Structure in Norfolk, England, 1540–1640. New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press. Google Scholar | |
|
Benford, Robert D. 1993. “Frame Disputes within the Nuclear Disarmament Movement.” Social Forces 71:677–701. Google Scholar | Crossref | ISI | |
|
Benford, Robert D. 1997. “An Insider’s Critique of the Social Movement Framing Perspective.” Sociological Inquiry 67:409–430. Google Scholar | Crossref | ISI | |
|
Benford, Robert D., Snow, David. 2003. “Framing Processes and Social Movements: An Overview and Assessment.” Annual Review of Sociology 26:611–39. Google Scholar | Crossref | ISI | |
|
Bennett, Lance . 2004. News: The Politics of Illusion. Washington, DC: Pearson Publishers. Google Scholar | |
|
Berezin, Mabel . 2002. “Secure States: Towards a Political Sociology of Emotion.” Pp. 33–50 in Emotions and Sociology, edited by Barbalet, J. Hoboken, NJ: Wiley-Blackwell. Google Scholar | SAGE Journals | |
|
Best, Rachel Kahn . 2012. “Disease Politics and Medical Research Funding: Three Ways Advocacy Shapes Policy.” American Sociological Review 77:780–803. Google Scholar | SAGE Journals | ISI | |
|
Bloomfield, Louis . 2011. “WCopyFind.” http://plagiarism.bloomfieldmedia.com/z-wordpress/software/wcopyfind/. Google Scholar | |
|
Bourdieu, Pierre . 1984. Distinction: A Social Critique of the Judgement of Taste. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. Google Scholar | |
|
Bourdieu, Pierre . 1985. “The Social Space and the Genesis of Groups.” Theory and Society 14:723–44. Google Scholar | Crossref | ISI | |
|
Brulle, Robert, Turner, Liesel, Carmichael, Jason, Jenkins, J. Craig. 2007. “Measuring Social Movement Organization Populations: A Comprehensive Census of U.S Environmental Movement Organizations.” Mobilization: An International Quarterly 12:255–70. Google Scholar | ISI | |
|
Burstein, Paul, Linton, April. 2002. “The Impact of Political Parties, Interest Groups, and Social Movement Organizations on Public Policy: Some Recent Evidence and Theoretical Concerns.” Social Forces 81:380–408. Google Scholar | Crossref | ISI | |
|
Cerulo, Karen A. 1998. Deciphering Violence: The Cognitive Structure of Right and Wrong, 1st ed. New York: Routledge. Google Scholar | |
|
Clayman, Steven E., Reisner, Ann. 1998. “Gatekeeping in Action: Editorial Conferences and Assessments of Newsworthiness.” American Sociological Review 63:178–99. Google Scholar | Crossref | ISI | |
|
Collins, Randall . 2001. “Social Movements and the Focus of Emotional Attention.” Pp. 27–44 in Passionate Politics, edited by Goodwin, J., Jasper, J., Polletta, F. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. Google Scholar | Crossref | |
|
Collins, Randall . 2012. “C-Escalation and D-Escalation: A Theory of the Time-Dynamics of Conflict.” American Sociological Review 77:1–20. Google Scholar | SAGE Journals | ISI | |
|
Corbett, Julia B. 1998. “Media, Bureaucracy, and the Success of Social Protest: Newspaper Coverage of Environmental Movement Groups.” Mass Communication and Society 1:41–61. Google Scholar | Crossref | |
|
Deb, Partha, Manning, Willard, Norton, Edward. 2012. “Count Models.” Working paper, Department of Economics, City University of New York, New York, NY. Google Scholar | |
|
Diani, Mario, McAdam, Doug. 2003. Social Movements and Networks: Relational Approaches to Collective Action. New York: Oxford University Press. Google Scholar | Crossref | |
|
DiMaggio, Paul . 1997. “Culture and Cognition.” Annual Review of Sociology 23:263–88. Google Scholar | Crossref | ISI | |
|
DiMaggio, Paul, Powell, Walter. 1983. “The Iron Cage Revisited: Institutional Isomorphism and Collective Rationality in Organizational Fields.” American Sociological Review 48:147–60. Google Scholar | Crossref | ISI | |
|
Douglas, Mary . 1966. Purity and Danger: An Analysis of Concepts of Pollution and Taboo. New York: Praeger. Google Scholar | Crossref | |
|
Earl, Jennifer . 2004. “The Cultural Consequences of Social Movements.” Pp. 508–530 in The Blackwell Companion to Social Movements, edited by Snow, D., Soule, S., Kriesi, H. Hoboken, NJ: Wiley-Blackwell. Google Scholar | Crossref | |
|
Earl, Jennifer, Martin, Andrew, McCarthy, John D., Soule, Sarah A. 2004. “The Use of Newspaper Data in the Study of Collective Action.” Annual Review of Sociology 30:65–80. Google Scholar | Crossref | ISI | |
|
Edelman, Murray . 1964. The Symbolic Uses of Politics. Urbana: University of Illinois Press. Google Scholar | |
|
Emery, F. E., Trist, E. L. 1965. “The Causal Texture of Organization Environments.” Human Relations 18:21–32. Google Scholar | SAGE Journals | ISI | |
|
Evans, John H. 1997. “Multi-Organizational Fields and Social Movement Organization Frame Content: The Religious Pro-Choice Movement.” Sociological Inquiry 67:451–69. Google Scholar | Crossref | ISI | |
|
Ferree, Myra Marx . 2003. “Resonance and Radicalism: Feminist Framing in the Abortion Debates of the United States and Germany.” American Journal of Sociology 109:304–344. Google Scholar | Crossref | ISI | |
|
Ferree, Myra Marx, Gamson, William, Gerhards, Jürgen, Rucht, Dieter. 2002. Shaping Abortion Discourse: Democracy and the Public Sphere in Germany and the United States. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. Google Scholar | Crossref | |
|
Fligstein, Neil . 2001. “Social Skill and the Theory of Fields.” Sociological Theory 19:105–125. Google Scholar | SAGE Journals | ISI | |
|
Fligstein, Neil, McAdam, Doug. 2012. A Theory of Fields. New York: Oxford University Press. Google Scholar | Crossref | |
|
Freeman, John, Hannan, Michael T. 1983. “Niche Width and the Dynamics of Organizational Populations.” American Journal of Sociology 88:1116–45. Google Scholar | Crossref | ISI | |
|
Galtung, Johan, Ruge, Mari Holmboe. 1965. “The Structure of Foreign News: The Presentation of the Congo, Cuba and Cyprus Crises in Four Norwegian Newspapers.” Journal of Peace Research 2:64–90. Google Scholar | SAGE Journals | |
|
Gamson, William . 1990. The Strategy of Social Protest. Boston: Wadsworth Publishing Company. Google Scholar | |
|
Gamson, William, Modigliani, Andre. 1989. “Media Discourse and Public Opinion on Nuclear Power: A Constructionist Approach.” American Journal of Sociology 95:1–37. Google Scholar | Crossref | ISI | |
|
Gamson, William, Wolfsfeld, Gadi. 1993. “Movements and Media as Interacting Systems.” Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science 528:114–25. Google Scholar | SAGE Journals | ISI | |
|
Gans, Herbert . 1979. Deciding What’s News: A Study of CBS Evening News, NBC Nightly News, Newsweek and Time. New York: Vintage. Google Scholar | |
|
Gelman, Andrew, Hill, Jennifer. 2007. Data Analysis Using Regression and Multilevel/Hierarchical Models. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. Google Scholar | |
|
Ghaziani, Amin, Baldassarri, Delia. 2011. “Cultural Anchors and the Organization of Differences.” American Sociological Review 76:179–206. Google Scholar | SAGE Journals | ISI | |
|
Gitlin, Todd . 1980. The Whole World is Watching: Mass Media in the Making and Unmaking of the New Left. Berkeley: University of California Press. Google Scholar | |
|
Goodwin, Jeff, Jasper, James, Polletta, Francesca. 2001. Passionate Politics: Emotions and Social Movements. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. Google Scholar | Crossref | |
|
Gould, Deborah . 2009. Moving Politics: Emotion and ACT UP’s Fight against AIDS. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. Google Scholar | Crossref | |
|
Grimmer, Justin . 2010. “A Bayesian Hierarchical Topic Model for Political Texts: Measuring Expressed Agendas in Senate Press Releases.” Political Analysis 18:1–35. Google Scholar | Crossref | ISI | |
|
Groseclose, Tim, Milyo, Jeffrey. 2005. “A Measure of Media Bias.” Quarterly Journal of Economics 120:1191–1237. Google Scholar | Crossref | ISI | |
|
Haines, Herbert H. 1984. “Black Radicalization and the Funding of Civil Rights: 1957–1970.” Social Problems 32:31–43. Google Scholar | Crossref | ISI | |
|
Hedström, Peter, Bearman, Peter. 2011. The Oxford Handbook of Analytical Sociology. New York: Oxford University Press. Google Scholar | |
|
Hilgartner, Stephen, Bosk, Charles L. 1988. “The Rise and Fall of Social Problems: A Public Arenas Model.” American Journal of Sociology 94:53–78. Google Scholar | Crossref | ISI | |
|
Isaac, Larry . 2008. “Movement of Movements: Culture Moves in the Long Civil Rights Struggle.” Social Forces 87:33–63. Google Scholar | Crossref | ISI | |
|
Isaac, Larry, Griffin, Larry J. 1989. “Ahistoricism in Time-Series Analyses of Historical Process: Critique, Redirection, and Illustrations from U.S. Labor History.” American Sociological Review 54:873–90. Google Scholar | Crossref | ISI | |
|
Iyengar, Shanto, Kinder, Donald R. 1988. News that Matters: Television and American Opinion. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. Google Scholar | |
|
Jacobs, Ronald, Townsley, Eleanor. 2011. The Space of Opinion: Media Intellectuals and the Public Sphere. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press. Google Scholar | Crossref | |
|
Jasper, James . 2006. Getting Your Way: Strategic Dilemmas in the Real World. Chicago: University Of Chicago Press. Google Scholar | Crossref | |
|
Katzenstein, Mary Fainsod . 1999. Faithful and Fearless: Moving Feminist Protest Inside the Church and Military. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. Google Scholar | |
|
Kennedy, Mark . 2008. “Getting Counted: Markets, Media, and Reality.” American Sociological Review 73:270–95. Google Scholar | SAGE Journals | ISI | |
|
King, Brayden G. 2011. “The Tactical Disruptiveness of Social Movements: Sources of Market and Mediated Disruption in Corporate Boycotts.” Social Problems 58:491–517. Google Scholar | Crossref | ISI | |
|
Klandermans, Bert, Gosingla, S. 1996. “Media Discourse, Movement Publicity, and the Generation of Collective Action Frames: Theoretical and Empirical Exercises in Meaning Construction.” Pp. 312–37 in Comparative Perspectives on Social Movements Opportunities, Mobilizing Structures, and Framing, edited by McAdam, D., McCarthy, J., Zald, M. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. Google Scholar | Crossref | |
|
Koopmans, Ruud . 2004. “Movements and Media: Selection Processes and Evolutionary Dynamics in the Public Sphere.” Theory and Society 33:367–91. Google Scholar | Crossref | ISI | |
|
Koopmans, Ruud, Olzak, Susan. 2004. “Discursive Opportunities and the Evolution of Right-Wing Violence in Germany.” American Journal of Sociology 110:198–230. Google Scholar | Crossref | ISI | |
|
Koopmans, Ruud, Vliegenthart, Rens. 2011. “Media Attention as the Outcome of a Diffusion Process: A Theoretical Framework and Cross-National Evidence on Earthquake Coverage.” European Sociological Review 27:636–53. Google Scholar | Crossref | ISI | |
|
Kurzman, Charles . 2004. The Unthinkable Revolution in Iran. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. Google Scholar | |
|
Kurzman, Charles . 2011. The Missing Martyrs: Why There Are So Few Muslim Terrorists. New York: Oxford University Press. Google Scholar | Crossref | |
|
Lamont, Michèle . 1992. Money, Morals, and Manners: The Culture of the French and American Upper- Middle Class. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. Google Scholar | Crossref | |
|
Lamont, Michèle . 2000. The Dignity of Working Men: Morality and the Boundaries of Race, Class, and Immigration. New York: Russell Sage Foundation. Google Scholar | |
|
Lee, Taeku . 2002. Mobilizing Public Opinion: Black Insurgency and Racial Attitudes in the Civil Rights Era. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. Google Scholar | |
|
Levi-Martin, John . 2003. “What Is Field Theory?” American Journal of Sociology 109:1–49. Google Scholar | Crossref | ISI | |
|
Levitsky, Sandra . 2007. “Niche Activism: Constructing a Unified Movement Identity in a Heterogeneous Organizational Field.” Mobilization: An International Quarterly 12:271–86. Google Scholar | ISI | |
|
Lieberson, Stanley . 2000. A Matter of Taste: How Names, Fashions, and Culture Change. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press. Google Scholar | |
|
Lippmann, Walter . 1922. Public Opinion. Boston, MA: Harcourt, Brace and Company. Google Scholar | |
|
McAdam, Doug . 1982. Political Process and the Development of Black Insurgency, 1930–1970, 1st ed. Chicago: University Of Chicago Press. Google Scholar | |
|
McAdam, Doug . 1996. “Conceptual Origins, Current Problems, Future Directions.” In Comparative Perspectives on Social Movements: Political Opportunities, Mobilizing Structures, and Cultural Framings, edited by McAdam, D., McCarthy, J., Zald, M. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. Google Scholar | Crossref | |
|
McCammon, Holly J. 2012. “Explaining Frame Variation: More Moderate and Radical Demands for Women’s Citizenship in the U.S. Women’s Jury Movements.” Social Problems 59:43–69. Google Scholar | Crossref | ISI | |
|
McCammon, Holly J., Muse, Courtney Sanders, Newman, Harmony D., Terrell, Teresa M. 2007. “Movement Framing and Discursive Opportunity Structures: The Political Successes of the U.S. Women’s Jury Movements.” American Sociological Review 72:725–49. Google Scholar | SAGE Journals | ISI | |
|
McCarthy, John D., McPhail, Clark, Smith, Jackie. 1996. “Images of Protest: Dimensions of Selection Bias in Media Coverage of Washington Demonstrations, 1982 and 1991.” American Sociological Review 61:478–99. Google Scholar | Crossref | ISI | |
|
McVeigh, Rory, Neblett, Carl, Shafiq, Sarah. 2006. “Explaining Social Movement Outcomes: Multiorganizational Fields and Hate Crime Reporting.” Mobilization 11:23–49. Google Scholar | ISI | |
|
Meyer, David, Minkoff, Debra. 2004. “Conceptualizing Political Opportunity.” Social Forces 82:1457–92. Google Scholar | Crossref | ISI | |
|
Minkoff, Debra, Aisenbrey, Silke, Agnone, Jon. 2008. “Organizational Diversity in the U.S. Advocacy Sector.” Social Problems 55:525–48. Google Scholar | Crossref | ISI | |
|
Mische, Ann . 2008. Partisan Publics: Communication and Contention across Brazilian Youth Activist Networks. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. Google Scholar | |
|
Mizruchi, Mark S. 1996. “What Do Interlocks Do? An Analysis, Critique, and Assessment of Research on Interlocking Directorates.” Annual Review of Sociology 22:271–98. Google Scholar | Crossref | ISI | |
|
Mohr, John W. 1998. “Measuring Meaning Structures.” Annual Review of Sociology 24:345–70. Google Scholar | Crossref | ISI | |
|
Mohr, John W., Guerra-Pearson, Francesca. 2010. “The Duality of Niche and Form: The Differentiation of Institutional Space in New York City, 1888–1917.” Pp. 321–68 in Categories in Markets: Origins and Evolution, edited by Hsu, G., Kocak, O., Bradford, G. Negro., UK: Emerald Press. Google Scholar | Crossref | |
|
Myers, Daniel J., Caniglia, Beth Schaefer. 2004. “All the Rioting That’s Fit to Print: Selection Effects in National Newspaper Coverage of Civil Disorders, 1968–1969.” American Sociological Review 69:519–43. Google Scholar | SAGE Journals | ISI | |
|
Oliver, Pamela, Maney, Gregory M. 2000. “Political Processes and Local Newspaper Coverage of Protest Events: From Selection Bias to Triadic Interactions.” American Journal of Sociology 106:463–505. Google Scholar | Crossref | ISI | |
|
Oliver, Pamela, Myers, Daniel J. 1999. “How Events Enter the Public Sphere: Conflict, Location, and Sponsorship in Local Newspaper Coverage of Public Events.” American Journal of Sociology 105:38–87. Google Scholar | Crossref | ISI | |
|
Oliver, Pamela, Myers, Daniel J. 2002. “The Coevolution of Social Movements.” Mobilization: An International Quarterly 8:1–24. Google Scholar | Crossref | |
|
Ortiz, David G., Myers, Daniel J., Walls, Eugene N., Diaz, Maria-Elena. 2005. “Where Do We Stand with Newspaper Data?” Mobilization: An International Quarterly 10:397–419. Google Scholar | ISI | |
|
Padgett, John F., Powell, Walter W. 2012. The Emergence of Organizations and Markets. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. Google Scholar | Crossref | |
|
Parker, Christopher, Barreto, Matt. 2012. Will the Real Americans Please Stand Up? The Tea Party and Contemporary Right-Wing Extremism in the United States. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. Google Scholar | |
|
Perrin, Andrew J. 2005. “National Threat and Political Culture: Authoritarianism, Antiauthoritarianism, and the September 11 Attacks.” Political Psychology 26:167–94. Google Scholar | Crossref | ISI | |
|
Perrin, Andrew J., Tepper, Steven J., Caren, Neal, Morris, Sarah. 2011. “Cultures of the Tea Party.” Contexts 10:74–75. Google Scholar | SAGE Journals | |
|
Perrin, Andrew J., Vaisey, Stephen B. 2008. “Parallel Public Spheres: Distance and Discourse in Letters to the Editor.” American Journal of Sociology 114:781–810. Google Scholar | Crossref | Medline | ISI | |
|
Polletta, Francesca . 1997. “Culture and Its Discontents: Recent Theorizing on the Cultural Dimensions of Protest.” Sociological Inquiry 67:431–50. Google Scholar | Crossref | ISI | |
|
Polletta, Francesca . 2008. “Culture and Movements.” Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science 619:78–96. Google Scholar | SAGE Journals | ISI | |
|
Powell, Walter W., White, Douglas R., Koput, Kenneth W., Owen-Smith, Jason. 2005. “Network Dynamics and Field Evolution: The Growth of Interorganizational Collaboration in the Life Sciences.” American Journal of Sociology 110:1132–1205. Google Scholar | Crossref | ISI | |
|
Press, Andrea, Cole, Elizabeth R. 2001. Speaking of Abortion: Television and Authority in the Lives of Women. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. Google Scholar | |
|
Rabe-Hesketh, Sophia, Skrondal, Anders. 2008. Multilevel and Longitudinal Modeling Using Stata. College Station, TX: Stata Press. Google Scholar | |
|
Read, Jen’nan Ghazal . 2007. “Introduction: The Politics of Veiling in Comparative Perspective.” Sociology of Religion 68:231–36. Google Scholar | Crossref | ISI | |
|
Rohlinger, Deana A. 2006. “Friends and Foes: Media, Politics, and Tactics in the Abortion War.” Social Problems 53:537–61. Google Scholar | Crossref | ISI | |
|
Rohlinger, Deana A. 2007. “American Media and Deliberative Democratic Processes.” Sociological Theory 25:122–48. Google Scholar | SAGE Journals | ISI | |
|
Rojas, Fabio . 2006. “Social Movement Tactics, Organizational Change and the Spread of African-American Studies.” Social Forces 84:2147–66. Google Scholar | Crossref | ISI | |
|
Schacter, Daniel L. 2001. The Seven Sins of Memory: How the Mind Forgets and Remembers. Boston: Houghton Mifflin. Google Scholar | |
|
Schanzer, David, Kurzman, Charles, Moosa, Ebrahim. 2010. “The Anti-Terror Lessons of Muslim-Americans.” Working Paper, Sanford School of Public Policy, Duke University, Durham, NC. Google Scholar | |
|
Schudson, Michael . 1989. “How Culture Works: Perspectives From Media Studies on the Efficacy of Symbols.” Theory and Society 18:153–80. Google Scholar | Crossref | ISI | |
|
Seguin, Charles . 2012. “Avalanches of Attention: Positive Feedback in Media Coverage of Social Movement Organizations.” Working paper, Department of Sociology, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, NC. Google Scholar | |
|
Sewell, William . 1996. “Historical Events as Transformations of Structures: Inventing Revolution at the Bastille.” Theory and Society 25:841–81. Google Scholar | Crossref | ISI | |
|
Skocpol, Theda, Williamson, Vanessa. 2012. The Tea Party and the Remaking of Republican Conservatism. New York: Oxford University Press. Google Scholar | Crossref | |
|
Smith, Jackie, McCarthy, John D., McPhail, Clark, Augustyn, Boguslaw. 2001. “From Protest to Agenda Building: Description Bias in Media Coverage of Protest Events in Washington, D.C.” Social Forces 79:1397–1423. Google Scholar | Crossref | ISI | |
|
Smith, Philip . 2005. Why War? The Cultural Logic of Iraq, the Gulf War and Suez. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. Google Scholar | Crossref | |
|
Snow, David . 2004. “Framing Processes, Ideology, and Discursive Fields.” Pp. 380–93 in The Blackwell Companion to Social Movements, edited by Snow, D., Soule, S., Kriesi, H. Hoboken, NJ: Wiley-Blackwell. Google Scholar | Crossref | |
|
Snyder, David, Kelley, William R. 1977. “Conflict Intensity, Media Sensitivity and the Validity of Newspaper Data.” American Sociological Review 42:105–123. Google Scholar | Crossref | ISI | |
|
Sobieraj, Sarah . 2011. Soundbitten: The Perils of Media-Centered Political Activism. New York: NYU Press. Google Scholar | |
|
Soule, Sarah A., Olzak, Susan. 2004. “When Do Movements Matter? The Politics of Contingency and the Equal Rights Amendment.” American Sociological Review 69:473–97. Google Scholar | SAGE Journals | ISI | |
|
Spillman, Lyn . 1995. “Culture, Social Structures and Discursive Fields.” Current Perspectives in Social Theory 15:129–54. Google Scholar | |
|
Staggenborg, Suzanne . 1994. The Pro-Choice Movement: Organization and Activism in the Abortion Conflict. New York: Oxford University Press. Google Scholar | |
|
Steensland, Brian . 2008. “Why do Policy Frames Change? Actor–Idea Coevolution in Debates Over Welfare Reform.” Social Forces 86:1027–1054. Google Scholar | Crossref | ISI | |
|
Steinberg, Marc W. 1999. “The Talk and Back Talk of Collective Action: A Dialogic Analysis of Repertoires of Discourse among Nineteenth-Century English Cotton Spinners.” American Journal of Sociology 105:736–80. Google Scholar | Crossref | ISI | |
|
Summers-Effler, Erika . 2002. “The Micro Potential for Social Change: Emotion, Consciousness, and Social Movement Formation.” Sociological Theory 20:41–60. Google Scholar | SAGE Journals | ISI | |
|
Summers-Effler, Erika . 2010. Laughing Saints and Righteous Heroes: Emotional Rhythms in Social Movement Groups. Chicago: University Of Chicago Press. Google Scholar | Crossref | |
|
Swidler, Ann . 1986. “Culture in Action: Symbols and Strategies.” American Sociological Review 51:273–86. Google Scholar | Crossref | ISI | |
|
Taylor, Verta, Van Dyke, Nella. 2004. “Get Up, Stand Up: Tactical Repertoires of Social Movements.” Pp. 262–74 in The Blackwell Companion to Social Movements, edited by Snow, D., Soule, S., Kriesi, H. Hoboken, NJ: Wiley-Blackwell. Google Scholar | Crossref | |
|
Thelen, Kathleen . 2004. How Institutions Evolve: The Political Economy of Skills in Germany, Britain, the United States, and Japan. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. Google Scholar | Crossref | |
|
Tilly, Charles . 2004. “Terror, Terrorism, Terrorists.” Sociological Theory 22:5–13. Google Scholar | SAGE Journals | ISI | |
|
Van Dyke, Nella, McCammon, Holly J. 2010. Strategic Alliances: Coalition Building and Social Movements. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press. Google Scholar | |
|
Viterna, Jocelyn . 2012. When Women Wage War: Explaining the Causes and Consequences of Guerrilla Activism in El Salvador. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press. Google Scholar | |
|
Vliegenthart, Rens, Oegema, Dirk, Klandermans, Bert. 2005. “Media Coverage and Organizational Support in the Dutch Environmental Movement.” Mobilization: An International Quarterly 10:365–81. Google Scholar | ISI | |
|
Wagner-Pacifici, Robin . 2010. “Theorizing the Restlessness of Events.” American Journal of Sociology 115:1351–86. Google Scholar | Crossref | ISI | |
|
Walker, Edward, McCarthy, John D. 2010. “Legitimacy, Strategy, and Resources in the Survival of Community-Based Organizations.” Social Problems 57:315–40. Google Scholar | Crossref | ISI | |
|
Walker, Edward, McCarthy, John D., Baumgartner, Frank. 2010. “Replacing Members with Managers? Mutualism among Membership and Non-membership Advocacy Organizations in the U.S.” American Journal of Sociology 116:1284–1337. Google Scholar | Crossref | ISI | |
|
White, Harrison C. 1981. “Where Do Markets Come From?” American Journal of Sociology 87:517–47. Google Scholar | Crossref | ISI | |
|
Williams, Rhys H. 2004. “The Cultural Contexts of Collective Action: Constraints, Opportunities, and the Symbolic Life of Social Movements.” Pp. 91–115 in The Blackwell Companion to Social Movements, edited by Snow, D., Soule, S., Kriesi, H. Hoboken, NJ: Wiley-Blackwell Publishers. Google Scholar | Crossref | |
|
Wimmer, Andreas . 2008. “The Making and Unmaking of Ethnic Boundaries: A Multilevel Process Theory.” American Journal of Sociology 113:970–1022. Google Scholar | Crossref | ISI | |
|
Wuthnow, Robert . 1987. Meaning and Moral Order. Berkeley: University of California Press. Google Scholar | |
|
Wuthnow, Robert . 1993. Communities of Discourse: Ideology and Social Structure in the Reformation, the Enlightenment, and European Socialism. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. Google Scholar |
