Abstract
In this study we consider the health implications of the sequencing of a college degree vis-à-vis familial roles during the transition to adulthood. We hypothesize that people who earned a college degree before assuming familial roles will have better health than people who earned a college degree afterwards. To test this hypothesis, we focus on obesity and use data from the National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent Health. Results show that marriage before completion of college was associated with a 50% higher probability of becoming obese when compared with marriage after completion of college. Parenthood before college completion was associated with a greater than twofold increase in the probability of becoming obese when compared to parenthood afterwards for black men. These findings suggest that the well-established association of education with health depends on its place in a sequence of roles.
References
|
Adler, Nancy E., Boyce, Thomas, Chesney, Margaret A., Cohen, Sheldon, Folkman, Susan, Kahn, Robert L., Syme, S. Leonard. 1994. “Socioeconomic Status and Health: The Challenge of the Gradient.” American Psychologist 49(1):15–24. Google Scholar | Crossref | Medline | ISI | |
|
Bachman, Jerald G., O’Malley, Patrick M., Schulenberg, John E., Johnston, Lloyd, Bryant, Alison L., Merline, Alicia C. 2002. The Decline of Substance Use in Young Adulthood: Changes in Social Activities, Roles, and Beliefs. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum. Google Scholar | |
|
Barban, Nicola . 2013. “Family Trajectories and Health: A Life Course Perspective.” European Journal of Population 29(4):357–85. Google Scholar | Crossref | ISI | |
|
Bauldry, Shawn, Shanahan, Michael J., Boardman, Jason D., Miech, Richard A., Macmillan, Ross. 2012. “A Life Course Model of Self-rated Health through Adolescence and Young Adulthood.” Social Science & Medicine 75(7):1311–20. Google Scholar | Crossref | Medline | ISI | |
|
Bellows-Riecken, Kai H., Rhodes, Ryan E. 2008. “A Birth of Inactivity? A Review of Physical Activity and Parenthood.” Preventive Medicine 46(2):99–110. Google Scholar | Crossref | Medline | ISI | |
|
Bleich, Sara, Blendon, Robert, Adam, Alyce. 2007. “Trust in Scientific Experts on Obesity: Implications for Awareness and Behavior Change.” Obesity 15(8):2145–56. Google Scholar | Crossref | Medline | ISI | |
|
Chang, Virginia W., Lauderdale, Diane S. 2009. “Fundamental Cause Theory, Technological Innova-tion, and Health Disparities: The Case of Cholesterol in the Era of Statins.” Journal of Health and Social Behavior 50(3):245–60. Google Scholar | SAGE Journals | ISI | |
|
Chilcoat, Howard D., Breslau, Naomi. 1996. “Alcohol Disorders in Young Adulthood: Effect of Transitions into Adult Roles.” Journal of Health and Social Behavior 37(4):339–49. Google Scholar | Crossref | Medline | ISI | |
|
Chiolero, Arnaud, Faeh, David, Paccaud, Fred, Cornuz, Jacques. 2008. “Consequences of Smoking for Body Weight, Body Fat Distribution, and Insulin Resistance.” American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 87(4):801–9. Google Scholar | Medline | ISI | |
|
Cleland, Verity J., Ball, Kylie, Magnussen, Costan, Dwyer, Terence, Venn, Alison. 2009. “Socioeconomic Position and the Tracking of Physical Activity and Cardirespitory Fitness from Childhood to Adulthood.” American Journal of Epidemiology 170(9):1069–77. Google Scholar | Crossref | Medline | ISI | |
|
Cohen, Sheldon . 2004. “Social Relationships and Health.” American Psychologist 59(8):676–84. Google Scholar | Crossref | Medline | ISI | |
|
Collins, Patricia Hill . 1998. “It’s All in the Family: Intersection of Gender, Race, and Nation.” Hypatia 13(3):62–82. Google Scholar | Crossref | |
|
Craig, Pippa L., Truswell, A. Stewart. 1988. “Dynamics of Food Habits of Newly Married Couples: Food-related Activites and Attitudes towards Food.” Journal of Human Nurtition and Dietetics 1(6):409–19. Google Scholar | Crossref | |
|
Craig, Pippa L., Truswell, A. Stewart. 1990. “Dynamics of Food Habits of Newly Married Couples: Weight and Exercise Patterns.” Australian Journal of Nutrition and Dietetics 47(2):42–46. Google Scholar | |
|
Crosnoe, Robert . 2007. “Gender, Obesity, and Education.” Sociology of Education 80(3):241–60. Google Scholar | SAGE Journals | ISI | |
|
Davis, Esa M., Zyzanski, Stephen J., Olson, Christine M., Stange, Kurt C., Horwitz, Ralph I. 2009. “Racial, Ethnic, and Socioecnomic Differences in the Incidence of Obesity Related to Childbirth.” American Journal of Public Health 99(2):294–99. Google Scholar | Crossref | Medline | ISI | |
|
Devine, Carol M., Bove, Caron F., Olson, Christine M. 2000. “Continuity and Change in Women’s Weight Orientation and Lifestyle Practices through Pregnancy and the Pospartum Period: The Influence of Life Course Trajectories and Transitional Events.” Social Science & Medicine 50(4):567–82. Google Scholar | Crossref | Medline | ISI | |
|
Dorsey, Rashida R., Eberhardt, Mark S., Ogden, Cynthia L. 2009. “Racial/Ethnic Differences in Weight Perception.” Obesity 17(4):790–95. Google Scholar | Crossref | Medline | ISI | |
|
Elder, Glen H., Shanahan, Michael J. 2006. “The Life Course and Human Development.” Pp. 665–715 in Handbook of Child Psychology, Vol. 1, edited by Lerner, R. Hoboken, NJ: Wiley. Google Scholar | |
|
Filozof, C., Pinilla, M. C. Fernandez, Fernandez-Crux, A. 2004. “Smoking Cessation and Weight Gain.” Obesity Reviews 5(2):95–103. Google Scholar | Crossref | Medline | |
|
Fitzgibbon, Marian L., Blackman, Lisa R., Avellone, Mary E. 2000. “The Relationship between Body Image Discrepancy and Body Mass Index across Ethnic Groups.” Obesity Research 8(8):582–89. Google Scholar | Crossref | Medline | |
|
Flegal, Katherine M., Carroll, Margaret D., Kit, Brian K., Ogen, Cynthia L. 2012. “Prevalence of Obesity and Trends in the Distribution of Body Mass Index Among U.S. Adults, 1999–2010.” Journal of the American Medical Association 307(5):491–97. Google Scholar | Crossref | ISI | |
|
Franco, Manuel, Roux, Ana V. Diez, Glass, Thomas A., Caballero, Benjamin, Brancati, Frederick L. 2008. “Neighborhood Characteristics and Availability of Healthy Food in Baltimore.” American Journal of Preventive Medicine 35(6):561–67. Google Scholar | Crossref | Medline | ISI | |
|
Fussell, Elizabeth . 2002. “The Transition to Adulthood in Aging Societies.” American Academy of Political and Social Science 580(1):16–39. Google Scholar | SAGE Journals | |
|
Giles-Corti, Billie, Donovan, Robert J. 2002. “Socioeconomic Status Differences in Recreational Physical Activity Levels and Real and Perceived Access to a Supportive Physical Environment.” Preventive Medicine 35(6):601–11. Google Scholar | Crossref | Medline | ISI | |
|
Gore, Stacy A., Brown, Della M., West, Delia Smith. 2003. “The Role of Postpartum Weight Retention in Obesity among Women: A Revew of the Evidence.” Annals of Behavioral Medicine 26(2):149–59. Google Scholar | Crossref | Medline | ISI | |
|
Gunderson, Erica P., Abrams, Barbara. 2000. “Epidemiology of Gestational Weight Gain and Body Weight Changes after Pregnancy.” Epidemiologic Reviews 22(2):261–74. Google Scholar | Crossref | Medline | ISI | |
|
Harris, Kathleen Mullan, Lee, Hedwig, DeLeone, Felicia Yang. 2010. “Marriage and Health in the Transition to Adulthood: Evidence for African Americans in the Add Health Study.” Journal of Family Issues 31(8):1106–43. Google Scholar | SAGE Journals | ISI | |
|
Hertz, Tom, Jayasundera, Tamara, Piraino, Patrizio, Selcuk, Sibel, Smith, Nicole, Verashchagina, Alina. 2007. “The Inheritance of Educational Inequality: International Comparisons of Fifty-year Trends.” B. E. Journal of Economic Analysis and Policy 7(2): 1–46. Google Scholar | ISI | |
|
Hoffman, Saul D., Foster, E. Michael, Furstenberg, Frank F. 1993. “Reevaluating the Costs of Teenage Childbearing.” Demography 30(2):1–13. Google Scholar | Crossref | Medline | ISI | |
|
Hout, Michael . 2012. “Social and Economic Returns to College Education in the United States.” Annual Review of Sociology 38(1):379–400. Google Scholar | Crossref | ISI | |
|
Jackson, Pamela Braboy . 2004. “Role Sequencing: Does Order Matter for Mental Health?” Journal of Health and Social Behavior 45(2):132–54. Google Scholar | SAGE Journals | ISI | |
|
Kjønnisken, Lise, Torsheim, Torbjørn, Wold, Bente. 2008. “Tracking Leisure-time Physical Activity during Adolescence and Young Adulthood: A 10-year Longitudinal Study.” International Journal of Behavioral Nutrition and Physical Activity 5(1):69–80. Google Scholar | Crossref | Medline | ISI | |
|
Krueger, Patrick M., Chang, Virginia W. 2008. “Being Poor and Coping with Stress: Health Behaviors and the Risk of Death.” American Journal of Public Health 98(5):8889–96. Google Scholar | Crossref | ISI | |
|
Kumanyika, Shiriki K. 2008. “Environmental Influences on Childhood Obesity: Ethnics and Cultural Influences in Context.” Physiology and Behavior 94(1):61–70. Google Scholar | Crossref | Medline | ISI | |
|
Lake, Amelia A., Mathers, John C., Rugg-Gunn, Andrew J., Adamson, Ashley J. 2006. “Longitudinal Change in Food Habits between Adolescence (11–12 Years) and Adulthood (32–33 Years): The ASH30 Study.” Journal of Public Health 28(1):10–16. Google Scholar | Crossref | Medline | ISI | |
|
Link, Bruce G., Phelan, Jo. 1995. “Social Conditions as Fundamental Causes of Disease.” Journal of Health and Social Behavior 35(Extra Issue):80–94. Google Scholar | Crossref | ISI | |
|
Linné, Yvonne, Barkeling, Britta, Rössner, Stephan. 2002. “Long-term Weight Development after Pregnancy.” Obesity Reviews 3(2):75–83. Google Scholar | Crossref | Medline | |
|
Linné, Yvonne, Dye, Louise, Barkeling, Britta, Rössner, Stephan. 2004. “Long-term Weight Development in Women: A 15-year Follow-up of the Effects of Pregnancy.” Obesity Research 12(7):1166–78. Google Scholar | Crossref | Medline | |
|
Lipsky, Leah M., Strawderman, Myla S., Olson, Christine M. 2012. “Maternal Weight Change Between 1 and 2 Years Postpartum: The Importance of 1 Year Weight Retention.” Obesity 20(7):1496–1502. Google Scholar | Crossref | Medline | ISI | |
|
Ljungvall, Asa, Zimmerman, Frederick J. 2012. “Bigger Bodies: Long-term Trends and Disparities in Obesity and Body-mass Index among U.S. Adults, 1960–2008.” Social Science & Medicine 75(1):109–19. Google Scholar | Crossref | Medline | ISI | |
|
Lutfey, Karen, Freese, Jeremy. 2005. “Toward Some Fundamentals of Fundamental Causality: Socioeconomic Status and Health in the Routine Clinic Visit for Diabetes.” American Journal of Sociology 110(5):1326–76. Google Scholar | Crossref | ISI | |
|
Mackenbach, Johan P., Stirbu, Irina, Roskam, Albert-Jan, Schaap, Maartje M., Menvielle, Gwenn, Leinsalu, Mall, Kunst, Anton E. 2008. “Socioeconomic Inequalities in Health in 22 European Countries.” New England Journal of Medicine 358(23):2468–81. Google Scholar | Crossref | Medline | ISI | |
|
Maralani, Vida . 2014. “Understanding the Links between Education and Smoking.” Social Science Research 48:20–34. Google Scholar | Crossref | Medline | ISI | |
|
Mayer, Karl . 2009. “New Directions in Life Course Research.” Annual Review of Sociology 35(1):413–33. Google Scholar | Crossref | ISI | |
|
Miech, Richard Allen, Kumanyika, Shiriki K., Stettler, Nicolas, Link, Bruce G., Phelan, Jo C., Chang, Virginia W. 2006. “Trends in the Association of Poverty with Overweight among US Adolescents, 1971–2004.” Journal of the American Medical Association 295(20):2385–93. Google Scholar | Crossref | ISI | |
|
Miech, Richard Allen, Pampel, Fred C., Kim, Jinyoung, Rogers, Richard G. 2011. “The Enduring Association between Education and Mortality: The Role of Widening and Narrowing Disparities.” American Sociological Review 76(6):913–34. Google Scholar | SAGE Journals | ISI | |
|
Mirowsky, John, Ross, Catherine E. 2003. Education, Social Status, and Health. New York: Aldine de Gruyter. Google Scholar | |
|
Mullahy, John, Robert, Stephanie A. 2010. “No Time to Lose: Time Constraints and Physical Activity in the Production of Health.” Review of Economics of the Household 8(4):409–32. Google Scholar | Crossref | ISI | |
|
National Center for Health Statistics . 2012. Health, United States, 2011: With Special Feature on Socioeconomic Status and Health. Hyattsville, MD: National Center for Health Statistics. Google Scholar | |
|
Nomaguchi, Kei M., Bianchi, Suzanne M. 2004. “Exercise Time: Gender Differneces in the Effects of Marriage, Parenthood, and Employment.” Journal of Marriage and the Family 66(2):413–30. Google Scholar | Crossref | ISI | |
|
O’Malley, Patrick M., Johnston, Lloyd. 2002. “Epidemiology of Alcohol and Other Drug Use among American College Students.” Journal of Studies on Alcohol Supplement(14):23–39. Google Scholar | Crossref | |
|
Paeratakul, Sahasporn, White, Marney A., Williamson, Donald A., Ryan, Donna H., Bray, George A. 2002. “Sex, Race/Ethnicity, Socioeconomic Status, and BMI in Relation to Self-perception of Overweight.” Obesity Research 10(5):345–50. Google Scholar | Crossref | Medline | |
|
Pampel, Fred C., Krueger, Patrick M., Denney, Justin T. 2010. “SES Disparities in Health Behaviors.” Annual Review of Sociology 36(1):349–70. Google Scholar | Crossref | Medline | ISI | |
|
Pearlin, Leonard I., Schieman, Scott, Fazio, Elena M., Meersman, Stephen C. 2005. “Stress, Health, and the Life Course; Some Conceptual Perspectives.” Journal of Health and Social Behavior 46(2):205–19. Google Scholar | SAGE Journals | ISI | |
|
Pereira, Mark A., Rifas-Shiman, Sheryl L., Kleinman, Ken P., Rich-Edwards, Janet W., Peterson, Karen E., Gillman, Matthew W. 2007. “Predictors of Change in Physical Activity during and after Pregnancy.” American Journal of Preventive Medicine 32(4):312–19. Google Scholar | Crossref | Medline | ISI | |
|
Powell, Lisa M., Slater, Sandy, Chaloupka, Frank J. 2004. “The Relationship between Community Physical Activity Settings and Race, Ethnicity, and Socioeconomic Status.” Evidence Based Preventive Medicine 1(2):135–44. Google Scholar | |
|
Powell, Lisa M., Slater, Sandy, Chaloupka, Frank J., Harper, Deborah. 2006. “Availability of Physical Activity–related Facilities and Neighborhood Demographic and Socioeconomic Characteristics: A National Study.” American Journal of Public Health 96(9):1676–80. Google Scholar | Crossref | Medline | ISI | |
|
Puhl, Rebecca M., Heuer, Chelsea A. 2009. “The Stigma of Obesity: A Review and Update.” Obesity 17(5):941–64. Google Scholar | Crossref | Medline | ISI | |
|
Raghunathan, Trivellore E., Lepkowski, James M., Van Hoewyk, J., Solenberger, P. 2001. “A Multivariate Technique for Multiply Imputing Missing Values Using a Sequence of Regression Models.” Survey Methodology 27(1):85–95. Google Scholar | |
|
Reilly, J. J., Kelly, J. 2011. “Long-term Impact of Overweight and Obesity in Childhood and Adolescence on Morbidity and Premature Mortality in Adulthood: Systematic Review.” International Journal of Obesity 35(7):891–98. Google Scholar | Crossref | ISI | |
|
Rubin, Donald B. 1996. “Multiple Imputation after 18+ Years.” Journal of the American Statistical Association 91(434):473–89. Google Scholar | Crossref | ISI | |
|
Sayon-Orea, Carmen, Martinez-Gonzalez, Miguel A., Bes-Rastrollo, Maira. 2011. “Alcohol Consumption and Body Weight: A Systematic Review.” Nutrition Reviews 69(8):419–31. Google Scholar | Crossref | Medline | ISI | |
|
Schulenberg, John E., Maggs, Jennifer L., Hurrelmann, L. 1997. “Negotiating Developmental Transitions during Adolescence and Young Adulthood: Health Risks and Opportunities.” Pp. 1–19 in Health Risks and Developmental Transitions during Adolescence, edited by Schulenberg, J. E., Maggs, J. L., Hurrelmann, K. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. Google Scholar | |
|
Schwartz, Marlene B., Brownell, Kelly D. 2004. “Obesity and Body Image.” Body Image 1(1):43–56. Google Scholar | Crossref | Medline | |
|
Sewell, William H., Hauser, Robert M. 1975. Education, Occupation, and Earnings: Achievement in the Early Career. New York: Academic Press. Google Scholar | |
|
Shah, Nirav R., Braverman, Eric R. 2012. “Measuring Adiposity in Patients: The Utiilty of Body Mass Index (BMI), Percent Body Fat, and Leptin.” PLoS One 7(4):e33308. Google Scholar | Crossref | Medline | ISI | |
|
Sobal, Jeffery, Rauchenbach, Barbara, Frongillo, Edward A. 2003. “Marital Status Changes and Body Weight Changes: A US Longitudinal Analysis.” Social Science & Medicine 56(7):1543–55. Google Scholar | Crossref | Medline | ISI | |
|
Tammelin, Tuija, Näyhä, Simo, Hills, Andrew P., Järvelin, Marjo-Riitta. 2003. “Adolescent Participation in Sports and Adult Physical Activity.” American Journal of Preventive Medicine 24(1):22–28. Google Scholar | Crossref | Medline | ISI | |
|
Telama, Risto . 2009. “Tracking of Physical Activity from Childhod to Adulthood: A Review.” Obesity Facts 2(3):187–95. Google Scholar | Crossref | Medline | ISI | |
|
Uecker, Jeremy E. 2012. “Marriage and Mental Health among Young Adults.” Journal of Health and Social Behavior 53(1):67–83. Google Scholar | SAGE Journals | ISI | |
|
Umberson, Debra, Crosnoe, Robert, Reczek, Corinne. 2010. “Social Relationships and Health Behavior across the Life Course.” Annual Review of Sociology 36(1):139–57. Google Scholar | Crossref | Medline | ISI | |
|
Umberson, Debra, Liu, Hui, Mirowsky, John, Reczek, Corinne. 2011. “Parenthood and Trajectories of Change in Body Weight over the Life Course.” Social Science & Medicine 73(9):1323–31. Google Scholar | Crossref | Medline | ISI | |
|
Umberson, Debra, Pudrovska, Tetyana, Reczek, Corinne. 2010. “Parenthood, Childlessness, and Well-being: A Life Course Perspective.” Journal of Marriage and the Family 72(3):621–29. Google Scholar | Crossref | ISI | |
|
U.S. Census Bureau . 2012. Educational Attainment in the United States: 2011—Detailed Tables. Vol. 2014. Washington, DC: U.S. Census Bureau. Google Scholar | |
|
U.S. Department of Education . 2002. Nontraditional Undergraduates, NCES 2002-012. Washington, DC: National Center for Education Statistics. Google Scholar | |
|
Waite, Linda J., Gallagher, Maggie. 2000. The Case for Marriage: Why Married People Are Happier, Healthier, and Better off Financially. New York: Doubleday. Google Scholar | |
|
Zhang, Qi, Wang, Youfa. 2004. “Trends in the Association between Obesity and Socioeconomic Status in U.S. Adults: 1971 to 2000.” Obesity Research 12(10):1622–32. Google Scholar | Crossref | Medline |
