![[PDF]](/pb-assets/Icons/adobe-pdf-icon-1498649896243.png){kind=icon}
Abstract
An implicit assumption underlying the gender stereotyping literature is that female candidates have an advantage in local elections. Two factors motivate this assumption. First, some local issues, such as the provision of social services, fit into the stereotypic strengths of female politicians. Second, as the level of office increases, so too does the perceived masculinity of the office. Research on local policymaking, however, indicates that the tasks associated with local political offices, such as economic competition with other cites, require masculine rather than feminine qualities. I integrate research on local policymaking with the gender stereotyping literature to clarify the role of gender stereotypes in local elections. Using two national survey experiments, I find that female candidates, especially Republican female candidates, benefit from emphasizing masculine stereotypes and not feminine stereotypes.
References
|
Alexander, Deborah, Anderson, Kristi. 1993. “Gender as a Factor in the Attribution of Leadership Traits.” Political Research Quarterly 46 (3): 527–45. Google Scholar | SAGE Journals | |
|
Atkeson, Lonna Rae, Krebs, Timothy B.. 2008. “Press Coverage of Mayoral Candidates: The Role of Gender in News Reporting and Campaign Issue Speech.” Political Research Quarterly 61 (2): 239–52. Google Scholar | SAGE Journals | |
|
Bargh, John A. 1989. “Conditional Automaticity: Varieties of Automatic Influence in Social Perception and Cognition.” In Unintended Thought, edited by Uleman, J. S., Bargh, J. A., 3–51. New York: Guilford. Google Scholar | |
|
Barnes, Tiffany D. 2016. Gendering Legislative Behavior: Institutional Constraints and Collaboration. New York: Cambridge Univ. Press. Google Scholar | Crossref | |
|
Barnes, Tiffany D., Beaulieu, Emily, Saxton, Gregory. 2017. “Restoring Trust in the Police: Why Female Officers Reduce Suspicions of Corruption.” Governance 31:143–61. Google Scholar | |
|
Bauer, Nichole M. 2015a. “Emotional, Sensitive, and Unfit for Office: Gender Stereotype Activation and Support for Female Candidates.” Political Psychology 36 (6): 691–708. doi:10.1111/pops.12186. Google Scholar | Crossref | |
|
Bauer, Nichole M. 2015b. “Who Stereotypes Female Candidates? Identifying Individual Differences in Feminine Stereotype Reliance.” Politics, Groups, and Identities 3 (1): 94–110. Google Scholar | Crossref | |
|
Bauer, Nichole M. 2017. “The Effects of Counter-Stereotypic Gender Strategies on Candidate Evaluations.” Political Psychology 38 (2): 279–95. doi:10.1111/pops.12351. Google Scholar | Crossref | |
|
Bauer, Nichole M. 2018. “Untangling the Relationship Between Partisanship, Gender Stereotypes, and Support for Female Candidates.” Journal of Women, Politics & Policy 39 (1): 1–25. Google Scholar | Crossref | |
|
Bauer, Nichole M., Harbridge, Laurel Yong, Krupnikov, Yanna. 2017. “Who Is Punished? Conditions Affecting Voter Evaluations of Legislators Who Do Not Compromise.” Political Behavior 39 (2): 379–400. Google Scholar | Crossref | |
|
Bos, Angela L. 2011. “Out of Control: Delegates’ Information Sources and Perceptions of Female Candidates.” Political Communication 28 (1): 87–109. Google Scholar | Crossref | ISI | |
|
Bos, Angela L., Schneider, Monica C., Utz, Brittany L.. 2017. “Gender Stereotypes and Prejudice in U.S. Elections.” In APA Handbook of the Psychology of Women, edited by Travis, Cheryl, White, Jackie, 367–384. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association. Google Scholar | |
|
Bratton, Kathleen A., Haynie, Kerry L.. 1999. “Agenda Setting and Legislative Success in State Legislatures: The Effects of Gender and Race.” Journal of Politics 61 (3): 658–79. Google Scholar | Crossref | |
|
Bratton, Kathleen A., Haynie, Karry L., Reingold, Beth. 2007. “Agenda Setting and African-American Women in State Legislatures.” Journal of Women, Politics & Policy 71 (Summer/Fall): 71–96. Google Scholar | |
|
Brooks, Deborah Jordan . 2013. He Runs, She Runs. Princeton: Princeton Univ. Press. Google Scholar | |
|
Brown, Eiizabeth R., Diekman, Amanda B., Schneider, Monica C.. 2011. “A Change Will Do Us Good: Threats Diminish Typical Preferences for Male Leaders.” Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin 37 (7): 930–41. Google Scholar | SAGE Journals | |
|
Brown, Nadia . 2014. Sisters in the Statehouse: Black Women and Legislative Decision Making. New York: Oxford Univ. Press. Google Scholar | Crossref | |
|
Burden, Barry C., Ono, Yoshikuni, Yamada, Masahiro. 2017. “Reassessing Public Support for a Female President.” Journal of Politics 79 (3): 1073–78. Google Scholar | Crossref | Medline | |
|
Burnett, Craig . 2017. “Parties as an Organizational Force on Nonpartisan City Councils.” Party Politics. Published electronically October 27. doi:10.1177/1354068817737996. Google Scholar | SAGE Journals | |
|
Carroll, Susan J., Sanbonmatsu, Kira. 2013. More Women Can Run: Gender and Pathways to the State Legislatures. New York: Oxford Univ. Press. Google Scholar | Crossref | |
|
Cassese, Erin C., Holman, Mirya R.. 2017. “Party and Gender Stereotypes in Campaign Attacks.” Political Behavior. Published electronically July 24. doi:10.1007/s11109-017-9423-7. Google Scholar | Crossref | Medline | |
|
Center for American Women in Politics . 2016. Current Numbers of Women Officeholders. Center for American Women in Politics, New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University. Google Scholar | |
|
Conroy, Meredith . 2015. Masculinity, Media, and the American Presidency. New York: Palgrave Macmillan. Google Scholar | Crossref | |
|
Craw, Michael . 2006. “Overcoming City Limits: Vertical and Horizontal Models of Local Redistributive Policy Making.” Social Science Quarterly 87 (2): 361–79. Google Scholar | Crossref | Medline | |
|
Craw, Michael . 2010. “Deciding to Provide: Local Decisions on Providing Social Welfare.” American Journal of Political Science 54 (4): 906–20. Google Scholar | Crossref | |
|
Crawford, Evan . 2018. “How Nonpartisan Ballot Design Conceals Partisanship: A Survey Experiment of School Board Members in Two States.” Political Research Quarterly 71:143–56. Google Scholar | SAGE Journals | |
|
Crowder-Meyer, Melody . 2013. “Gendered Recruitment Without Trying: How Local Party Recruiters Affect Women’s Representation.” Politics & Gender 9:390–413. Google Scholar | Crossref | ISI | |
|
Crowder-Meyer, Melody, Gadarian, Shana Kushner, Trounstine, Jessica. 2015. “Electoral Institutions, Gender Stereotypes, and Women’s Local Representation.” Politics, Groups, and Identities 3 (2): 318–34. Google Scholar | Crossref | Medline | |
|
de Benedictis-Kessner, Justin, Warshaw, Christopher. 2016. “Mayoral Partisanship and Municipal Fiscal Policy.” Journal of Politics 78 (4): 1–15. Google Scholar | Crossref | |
|
Deckman, Melissa Marie . 2007. “School Board Candidates and Gender: Ideology, Party, and Policy Concerns.” Journal of Women, Politics & Policy 28 (1): 87–117. Google Scholar | Crossref | |
|
Deen, Rebecca E., Little, Thomas H.. 1999. “Getting to the Top: Factors Influencing the Selection of Women to Positions of Leadership in State Legislatures.” State and Local Government Review 31 (2): 123–34. Google Scholar | SAGE Journals | |
|
Delli Carpini, Michael X., Keeter, Scott. 1996. What Americans Know About Politics and Why It Matter. New Haven: Yale Univ. Press. Google Scholar | |
|
Ditonto, Tessa M. 2017. “A High Bar or a Double Standard? Gender, Competence, and Information in Political Campaigns.” Political Behavior 39 (2): 301–25. doi:10.1007/s11109-016-9357-5. Google Scholar | Crossref | |
|
Ditonto, Tessa M., Hamilton, Allison J., Redlawsk, David P.. 2014. “Gender Stereotypes, Information Search, and Voting Behavior in Political Campaigns.” Political Behavior 36 (2): 335–58. Google Scholar | Crossref | Medline | |
|
Dolan, Kathleen . 1998. “Voting for Women in the Year of the Woman.” American Journal of Political Science 42:272–93. Google Scholar | Crossref | |
|
Dolan, Kathleen . 2004. Voting for Women: How the Public Evaluates Women Candidates. Boulder: Westview Press. Google Scholar | |
|
Dolan, Kathleen . 2014a. “Gender Stereotypes, Candidate Evaluations, and Voting for Women Candidates: What Really Matters?” Political Research Quarterly 67 (1): 96–107. Google Scholar | SAGE Journals | ISI | |
|
Dolan, Kathleen . 2014b. When Does Gender Matter? Women Candidates & Gender Stereotypes in American Elections. New York: Oxford Univ. Press. Google Scholar | Crossref | |
|
Dolan, Kathleen, Lynch, Timothy. 2016. “The Impact of Gender Stereotypes on Voting for Women Candidates by Level and Type of Office.” Politics & Gender 12 (3): 573–95. Google Scholar | |
|
Druckman, James N., Kifer, Martin J., Parkin, Michael. 2009. “Campaign Communications in U.S. Congressional Elections.” American Political Science Review 103 (3): 343–66. doi:10.1017/S0003055409990037. Google Scholar | Crossref | |
|
Eagly, Alice H., Karau, Steve J.. 2002. “Role Congruity Theory of Prejudice Toward Female Leaders.” Psychological Review 109 (3): 573–94. doi:10.1037//0033-295X.109.3.573. Google Scholar | Crossref | Medline | |
|
Ferreira, Fernando, Gyourko, Joseph. 2009. “Do Political Parties Matter? Evidence from U.S. Cites.” The Quarterly Journal of Economics 124 (1): 399–422. Google Scholar | Crossref | ISI | |
|
Ferreira, Fernando, Gyourko, Joseph. 2014. “Does Gender Matter for Political Leadership? The Case of U.S. Mayors.” Journal of Public Economies 112:24–39. Google Scholar | Crossref | |
|
Fox, Richard L., Oxley, Zoe M.. 2003. “Gender Stereotyping in State Executive Elections: Candidate Selection and Success.” Journal of Politics 65 (3): 833–50. Google Scholar | Crossref | |
|
Franz, Michael M., Freedman, Paul, Goldstein, Kenneth M., Ridout, Travis N.. 2007. Campaign Advertising and American Democracy. Philadelphia: Temple Univ. Press. Google Scholar | |
|
Fridkin, Kim L., Kenney, Patrick J.. 2015. The Changing Face of Representation: The Gender of U.S. Senators and Constituent Communications. Ann Arbor: Univ. of Michigan Press. Google Scholar | |
|
Fridkin, Kim L., Kenney, Patrick J., Woodall, Gina Serignese. 2009. “Bad for Men, Better for Women: The Impact of Stereotypes During Negative Campaigns.” Political Behavior 31:53–77. Google Scholar | Crossref | ISI | |
|
Gerber, Elizabeth R., Hopkins, Daniel J.. 2011. “When Mayors Matter: Estimating the Impact of Mayoral Partisanship on City Policy.” American Journal of Political Science 55 (2): 326–39. Google Scholar | Crossref | |
|
Gershon, Sarah Allen . 2012. “When Race, Gender, and the Media Intersect: Campaign News Coverage of Minority Congresswomen.” Journal of Women, Politics & Policy 33 (2): 105–25. Google Scholar | Crossref | |
|
Hajnal, Zoltan L., Trounstine, Jessica. 2010. “Who or What Governs? The Effects of Economics, Politics, Institutions, and Needs on Local Spending.” American Politics Research 38 (6): 1130–63. Google Scholar | SAGE Journals | ISI | |
|
Hannagan, Rebecca J., Larimer, Christopher W., Hibbing, Matthew V.. 2015. “Sex Differences, Personality, and Ideology: A Deeper Investigation via Contexts in a Study of Local Politics.” Politics, Groups, and Identities 4 (4): 561–78. doi:10.1080/21565503.2015.1050416. Google Scholar | Crossref | |
|
Hayes, Danny . 2005. “Candidate Qualities Through a Partisan Lens: A Theory of Trait Ownership.” American Journal of Political Science 49 (4): 908–23. Google Scholar | Crossref | |
|
Hayes, Danny . 2011. “When Gender and Party Collide: Stereotyping in Candidate Trait Attribution.” Politics & Gender 7 (2): 133–65. doi:10.1017/S1743923X11000055. Google Scholar | Crossref | |
|
Hayes, Danny, Lawless, Jennifer L.. 2016. Women on the Run: Gender, Media, and Political Campaigns in a Polarized Era. New York: Cambridge Univ. Press. Google Scholar | Crossref | |
|
Hedlund, Ronald, Freeman, Patrick K., Hamm, Keith E., Stein, Robert M.. 1979. “The Electability of Women Candidates: The Effects of Sex Role Stereotypes.” Journal of Politics 41 (2): 513–24. Google Scholar | Crossref | |
|
Heidbreder, Brianne, Scheurer, Katherine Felix. 2012. “Gender and the Gubernatorial Agenda.” State and Local Government Review 45 (1): 3–13. Google Scholar | SAGE Journals | |
|
Heilman, Madeline E. 2001. “Description and Prescription: How Gender Stereotypes Prevent Women’s Ascent up the Organizational Ladder.” Journal of Social Issues 57 (4): 181–203. Google Scholar | Crossref | |
|
Herrick, Rebekah . 2016. “Gender Themes in State Legislative Candidates’ Websites.” The Social Science Journal 53:282–90. Google Scholar | Crossref | Medline | |
|
Holman, Mirya R. 2013. “Sex and the City: Female Leaders and Spending on Social Welfare Programs in U.S. Municipalities.” Journal of Urban Affairs 36 (4): 701–15. Google Scholar | Crossref | |
|
Holman, Mirya R. 2014. Women in Politics in the American City. Philadelphia: Temple Univ. Press. Google Scholar | |
|
Holman, Mirya R. 2016. “Gender, Political Rhetoric, and Moral Metaphors in State of the City Addresses.” Urban Affairs Review 52 (4): 501–30. Google Scholar | SAGE Journals | |
|
Holman, Mirya R. 2017. “Women in Local Government: What We Know and Where We Go from Here.” State and Local Government Review 49:285–96. doi:10.1177/0160323X17732608. Google Scholar | SAGE Journals | |
|
Holman, Mirya R., Merolla, Jennifer L., Zechmeister, Elizabeth J.. 2016. “Terrorist Threat, Male Stereotypes, and Candidate Evaluations.” Political Research Quarterly 69 (1): 134–47. Google Scholar | SAGE Journals | |
|
Holman, Mirya R., Merolla, Jennifer L., Zechmeister, Elizabeth J.. 2017. “Can Experience Overcome Stereotypes in Times of Terror Threat?” Research & Politics. Published electronically March 1. doi:10.1177/2053168016688121. Google Scholar | SAGE Journals | |
|
Huddy, Leonie, Terkildsen, Nayda. 1993a. “Gender Stereotypes and the Perception of Male and Female Candidates.” American Journal of Political Science 37 (1): 119–47. Google Scholar | Crossref | |
|
Huddy, Leonie, Terkildsen, Nayda. 1993b. “The Consequences of Gender Stereotypes for Women Candidates at Different Levels and Types of Office.” Political Research Quarterly 46 (3): 503–25. Google Scholar | SAGE Journals | |
|
Iyengar, Shanto, Valentino, Nicholas A., Ansolabehere, Stephen. 1996. “Running as a Woman: Gender Stereotyping in Political Campaigns.” In Women, the Media and Politics, edited by Norris, Pippa , 77–98. New York: Oxford Univ. Press. Google Scholar | |
|
Kahn, Kim Fridkin . 1994. “Does Gender Make a Difference? An Experimental Examination of Sex Stereotypes and Press Patterns in Statewide Campaigns.” American Journal of Political Science 38 (1): 162–95. Google Scholar | Crossref | |
|
Koch, Jeffrey W. 2000. “Do Citizens Apply Gender Stereotypes to Infer Candidates’ Ideological Orientations?” The Journal of Politics 62 (2): 414–29. Google Scholar | Crossref | |
|
Koenig, Anne M., Eagly, Alice H., Mitchell, Abigail A., Ristikari, Tiina. 2011. “Are Leader Stereotypes Masculine? A Meta-analysis of Three Research Paradigms.” Psychological Bulletin 137 (4): 616–42. Google Scholar | Crossref | Medline | |
|
Krupnikov, Yanna, Bauer, Nichole M.. 2014. “The Relationship Between Campaign Negativity, Gender and Campaign Context.” Political Behavior 36 (1): 167–88. Google Scholar | Crossref | Medline | |
|
Krupnikov, Yanna, Piston, Spencer, Bauer, Nichole M.. 2016. “Saving Face: Identifying Voter Responses to Black and Female Candidates.” Political Psychology 37 (2): 253–73. doi:10.1111/pops.12261. Google Scholar | Crossref | |
|
Laird, Chryl N. 2017. “Black like Me: How Political Communication Changes Racial Group Identification and Its Implications.” Politics, Groups, and Identities. Published electronically August 2. doi:10.1080/21565503.2017.1358187. Google Scholar | Crossref | Medline | |
|
Lawless, Jennifer L. 2004. “Women, War, and Winning Elections: Gender Stereotyping in the Post-September 11th Era.” Political Research Quarterly 57 (3): 479–90. Google Scholar | SAGE Journals | |
|
Lien, Pei-te . 2015. “Reassessing Descriptive Representation by Women and Men of Color: New Evidence at the Subnational Level.” Urban Affairs Review 51 (2): 239–62. Google Scholar | SAGE Journals | |
|
Maestas, Cherie D., Fulton, Sarah A., Maisel, L. Sandy, Stone, Walter J.. 2006. “When to Risk It? Institutions, Ambition, and the Decision to Run for the U.S. House.” American Political Science Review 199 (2): 195–208. Google Scholar | Crossref | |
|
McDermott, Monika L. 1997. “Voting Cues in Low-Information Elections: Candidate Gender as a Social Information Variable in Contemporary United States Elections.” American Journal of Political Science 41 (1): 270–83. Google Scholar | Crossref | |
|
McDermott, Monika L. 1998. “Race and Gender Cues in Low-Information Elections.” Political Research Quarterly 51 (4): 895–918. Google Scholar | SAGE Journals | ISI | |
|
McDermott, Monika L. 2016. Masculinity and Femininity in American Political Behavior. New York: Oxford Univ. Press. Google Scholar | Crossref | |
|
Mendelberg, Tali, Karpowitz, Christopher, Goedert, Nicholas. 2014. “Does Descriptive Representation Facilitate Women’s Distinctive Voice? How Gender Composition and Decision Rules Affect Deliberation.” American Journal of Political Science 58 (2): 291–306. Google Scholar | Crossref | ISI | |
|
Mo, Hyunjung Cecilia . 2015. “The Consequences of Explicit and Implicit Gender Attitudes and Candidate Quality in the Calculations of Voters.” Political Behavior 37 (2): 357–95. Google Scholar | Crossref | |
|
Morton, Rebecca B., Williams, Keneth C.. 2010. Experimental Political Science and the Study of Causality: from Nature to the Lab. New York: Cambridge Univ. Press. Google Scholar | Crossref | |
|
Nechemias, Carol . 1987. “Changes in the Election of Women to U. S. State Legislative Seats.” Legislative Studies Quarterly 12 (1): 125–42. Google Scholar | Crossref | |
|
National League of Cities . 2016. “National League of Cities: City Councils.” https://www.nlc.org/ Google Scholar | |
|
Oliver, Sarah, Conroy, Meredith. 2017. “Tough Enough for the Job? How Masculinity Predicts Recruitment of City Council Members.” American Politics Research. Published electronically September 8. doi:10.1177/1532673X17729719. Google Scholar | SAGE Journals | |
|
Peterson, Paul E. 1981. City Limits. Chicago: The Univ. of Chicago Press. Google Scholar | Crossref | |
|
Petrocik, John R. 1996. “Issue Ownership in Presidential Elections, with a 1980 Case Study.” American Journal of Political Science 40 (3): 825–50. Google Scholar | Crossref | |
|
Prentice, Deborah A., Carranza, Erica. 2002. “What Women and Men Should Be, Shouldn’t Be, Are Allowed to Be, and Don’t Have to Be: The Contents of Prescriptive Gender Stereotypes.” Psychology of Women Quarterly 26 (4): 269–91. doi:10.1111/1471-6402.t01-1-00066. Google Scholar | SAGE Journals | |
|
Richardson, Lilliard E., Freeman, Patrick K.. 1995. “Gender Differences in Constituency Service Among Legislators.” Political Research Quarterly 48 (1): 169–79. Google Scholar | SAGE Journals | |
|
Rosenwasser, Shirley Miller, Dean, Norma G.. 1989. “Gender Role and Political Office: Effects of Perceived Masculinity/Femininity of Candidate and Political Office.” Psychology of Women Quarterly 13 (1): 77–85. Google Scholar | SAGE Journals | ISI | |
|
Rosenwasser, Shirley Miller, Seale, Jana. 1988. “Attitudes Toward a Hypothetical Male or Female Presidential Candidate: A Research Note.” Political Psychology 9 (4): 591–98. Google Scholar | Crossref | |
|
Rudman, Laurie A., Greenwald, Anthony G., McGhee, Debbie E.. 2001. “Implicit Self-Concept and Evaluative Implicit Gender Stereotypes: Self and Ingroup Share Desirable Traits.” Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin 27 (9): 1164–78. Google Scholar | SAGE Journals | |
|
Sanbonmatsu, Kira . 2006. Where Women Run: Gender and Party in the American States. Ann Arbor: Univ. of Michigan Press. Google Scholar | Crossref | |
|
Sanbonmatsu, Kira, Dolan, Kathleen. 2009. “Do Gender Stereotypes Transcend Party?” Political Research Quarterly 62 (3): 485–94. Google Scholar | SAGE Journals | |
|
Schlozman, Kay L., Burns, Nancy, Verba, Sidney, Donahue, Jesse. 1995. “Gender and Citizen Activity: Is There a Different Voice?” American Journal of Political Science 39:267–93. Google Scholar | Crossref | |
|
Schneider, Monica C. 2014a. “Gender-Based Strategies on Candidate Websites.” Journal of Political Marketing 13 (4): 264–90. doi:10.1111/pops.12040. Google Scholar | Crossref | |
|
Schneider, Monica C. 2014b. “The Effects of Gender-Bending on Candidate Evaluations.” Journal of Women, Politics & Policy 35:55–77. Google Scholar | Crossref | |
|
Schneider, Monica C., Bos, Angela L.. 2014. “Measuring Stereotypes of Female Politicians.” Political Psychology 35 (2): 245–66. Google Scholar | Crossref | |
|
Schneider, Monica C., Bos, Angela L.. 2016. “The Intersection of Party and Gender Stereotypes in Evaluating Political Candidates.” Journal of Women, Politics & Policy 37 (3): 274–94. Google Scholar | Crossref | |
|
Smith, Adrienne R., Reingold, Beth, Owens, Michael Leo. 2012. “The Political Determinants of Women’s Descriptive Representation in Cities.” Political Research Quarterly 65 (2): 315–29. Google Scholar | SAGE Journals | |
|
Streb, Matthew J., Burrell, Barbara, Frederick, Brian, Genovese, Michael A.. 2008. “Social Desirability Effects and Support for a Female American President.” The Public Opinion Quarterly 72 (1): 76–89. Google Scholar | Crossref | ISI | |
|
Sweet-Cushman, Jennie . 2016. “Gender, Risk Assessment, and Political Ambition.” Politics and the Life Sciences 35 (2): 1–17. doi:10.1017/pls.2016.13. Google Scholar | Crossref | Medline | |
|
The Pew Charitable Trusts . 2016. “City Councils in Philadelphia and Other Major Cities.”, Washington, DC: The Pew Charitable Trusts. Google Scholar | |
|
Thomas, Sue . 1992. “The Effects of Race and Gender on Constituency Service.” The Western Political Quarterly 45 (1): 169–80. Google Scholar | Crossref | |
|
Thomas, Sue . 1994. How Women Legislate. New York: Oxford Univ. Press. Google Scholar | |
|
Trounstine, Jessica . 2015. “The Privatization of Public Services in American Cities.” Social Science History 39 (3): 371–85. Google Scholar | Crossref | Medline | |
|
Vavreck, Lynn, Rivers, Douglas. 2008. “The 2006 Cooperative Congressional Election Study.” Journal of Elections, Public Opinion and Parties 18 (4): 355–66. Google Scholar | Crossref | |
|
Vinkenburg, Claartje, van Engen, Marloes L., Eagly, Alice H., Johannesen-Schmidt, Mary C.. 2011. “An Exploration of Stereotypical Beliefs About Leadership Styles: Is Transformational Leadership a Route to Women’s Promotion?” The Leadership Quarterly 22 (1): 10–21. Google Scholar | Crossref | ISI | |
|
Vraga, Emily K. 2017. “Which Candidates Can Be Mavericks? The Effects of Issue Disagreement and Gender on Candidate Evaluations.” Politics & Policy 45 (1): 4–30. Google Scholar | Crossref | |
|
West, Darrell . 2014. Air Wars: Television Advertising and Social Media in Election Campaigns, 1952-2012. 6th ed. Thousand Oaks: CQ Press. Google Scholar | |
|
White, Ismail K., Laird, Chryl N., Allen, Troy D.. 2014. “Selling Out? The Politics of Navigating Conflicts Between Racial Group Interest and Self-Interest.” American Political Science Review 108 (4): 783–800. Google Scholar | Crossref | ISI | |
|
Williams, Leonard . 1998. “Political Advertising in the Year of the Woman: Did X Mark the Spot?” In The Year of the Woman: Myths and Realities, edited by Cook, Elizabeth Adell, Thomas, Sue, Wilcox, Clyde, 197–215. Boulder, CO: Westview Press. Google Scholar | |
|
Windett, Jason . 2014. “Gendered Campaign Strategies in U.S. Elections.” American Politics Research 42 (4): 628–55. Google Scholar | SAGE Journals | |
|
Winter, Nicholas J. G. 2010. “Masculine Republicans and Feminine Democrats: Gender and Americans’ Explicit and Implicit Images of the Political Parties.” Political Behavior 32 (4): 587–618. doi:10.1007/s11109-010-9131-z. Google Scholar | Crossref | ISI | |
|
Wolak, Jennifer . 2015. “Candidate Gender and the Political Engagement of Women and Men.” American Politics Research 45 (3): 872–96. Google Scholar | |
|
Wolbrecht, Christina, Campbell, David E.. 2017. “Role models revisited: Youth, Novelty, and the Impact of Female Candidates.” Politics, Groups, and Identities 5:418–34. doi:10.1080/21565503.2016.1268179. Google Scholar | Crossref | Medline |
