Skip to main content
Intended for healthcare professionals
Restricted access
Research article
First published online June 8, 2010

Toward a model of outdoor lighting scene brightness

Abstract

Light quantities based on the photopic luminous efficiency function do not predict brightness perceptions of lighted outdoor scenes such as streets, parking lots and plazas. This paper summarises a series of experiments conducted using scale-model outdoor scenes illuminated by different light sources to assess judgements of brightness. From the results and from previously published literature on the relative increase in short-wavelength spectral sensitivity for brightness, a tentative model for brightness perception of outdoor scenes is proposed. The model can serve as a starting point for efficiently testing future hypotheses regarding brightness perception in lighted outdoor scenes.

Get full access to this article

View all access and purchase options for this article.

References

Wyszecki G., Stiles W. Color Science: Concepts and Methods, Quantitative Data and Formulae. New York: Wiley, 1982.
Commission Internationale de l’Éclairage. Principales Decisions, CIE Sixième Session. Cambridge : Cambridge University Press, 1926 : 67-69.
Ives H. XII. Studies in the photometry of lights of different colours . Philosophical Magazine Series 1912; 24: 149-188.
Guth S., Graham B. Heterochromatic additivity and the acuity response. Vision Research 1975; 15: 317-319.
Rea M., Ouellette M. Relative visual performance: A basis for application. Lighting Research and Technology 1991; 23: 135-144.
He Y., Rea M., Bierman A., Bullough J. Evaluating light source efficacy under mesopic conditions using reaction times . Journal of the Illuminating Engineering Society 1997; 26: 125-138.
Smith S., Rea M. Relationships between office task performance and ratings of feelings and task evaluations under different light sources and levels: Proceedings of the 19th Session of the Commission Internationale de l'Éclairage. Vienna: CIE, 1980.
Lennie P., Pokorny J., Smith V. Luminance. Journal of the Optical Society of America A 1993; 10: 1283-1293.
Commission Internationale de l’Eclairage. Light as a True Visual Quantity: Principles of Measurement . Paris: CIE, 1978.
Commission Internationale de l’Eclairage. CIE 1988 2° Spectral Luminous Efficiency Function for Photopic Vision. Vienna: CIE, 1990.
Commission Internationale de l’Eclairage. CIE 10 Degree Photopic Photometric Observer. Vienna: CIE, 2005.
Schanda J., Morren L., Rea M., Rositani-Ronchi L., Walraven P. Does lighting need more photopic luminous efficiency functions? Lighting Research and Technology 2002; 34: 69-76.
Rea M., Bullough J., Freyssinier-Nova J., Bierman A. A proposed unified system of photometry. Lighting Research and Technology 2004; 36: 85-111.
Goodman T., Forbes A., Walkey H., Eloholma M., Halonen L., Alferdinck J., Freiding A., Bodrogi P., Varady G., Szalmas A. Mesopic visual efficiency IV: a model with relevance to nighttime driving and other applications. Lighting Research and Technology 2007; 39: 365-392.
Akashi Y., Morante P., Rea MS An energy-efficient street lighting demonstration based upon the unified system of photometry: Proceedings of the CIE Symposium on Lighting in Mesopic Conditions . Vienna: CIE, 2005.
Smith V., Pokorny J. Spectral sensitivity of the foveal cone photopigments between 400 and 500 nm. Vision Research 1975; 15: 161-171.
Sagawa K., Takeichi K. System of mesopic photometry for evaluating lights in terms of comparative brightness relationships. Journal of the Optical Society of America A 1992; 9: 1240-1246.
Rea M., Bullough J., Akashi Y. Several views of metal halide and high pressure sodium lighting for outdoor applications. Lighting Research and Technology 2009; 41: 297-320.
Guth S., Massof R., Benzschawel T. Vector model for normal and dichromatic color vision. Journal of the Optical Society of America 1980; 70: 197-212.
Ikeda M., Yaguchi H., Sagawa K. Brightness luminous-efficiency functions for 2° and 10° fields. Journal of the Optical Society of America 1982; 72: 1660-1665.
Ware C., Cowan W. Specification of Heterochromatic Brightness Matches: A Conversion Factor for Calculating Luminances of Small Stimuli Which are Equal in Brightness. Ottawa: National Research Council Canada, 1983.
Bullough J., Yuan Z., Rea M. Perceived brightness of incandescent and LED aviation signal lights. Aviation, Space, and Environmental Medicine 2007; 78: 893-900.
Kuehni R. An opponent-color model for the Sanders-Wyszecki Helmholtz-Kohlrausch effect dataset. Color Research and Application 2000 ; 25: 292-293.
Nayatani Y. Simple estimation methods for the Helmholtz-Kohlrausch effect. Color Research and Application 1997 ; 22: 385-401.
Ferguson H., Stevens W. Relative brightness of coloured light sources . Transactions of the Illuminating Engineering Society 1956; 21: 227-255.
De Boer J. Visual perception in road traffic and the field of vision of the motorist . In: De Boer J, editor. Public Lighting. Eindhoven: Philips Technical Library, 1967: pp. 11-96.
Fotios S., Cheal C. Lighting for subsidiary streets: investigation of lamps of different SPD. Part 1-Visual performance. Lighting Research and Technology 2007; 39: 215-232.
Fotios S., Cheal C. Lighting for subsidiary streets: investigation of lamps of different SPD. Part 2-Brightness. Lighting Research and Technology 2007; 39: 233-252.
Rea M. Calibration of subjective scaling responses. Lighting Research and Technology 1982; 14: 121-129.
Rea M., Bierman A., McGowan T., Dickey F., Havard J. A field test comparing the effectiveness of metal halide and high pressure sodium illuminants under mesopic conditions: Proceedings of Visual Scales: Photometric and Colorimetric Aspects. Vienna: CIE, 1997.
Boyce PR, Eklund N., Hamilton B., Bruno L. Perceptions of safety at night in different lighting conditions. Lighting Research and Technology 2000; 32: 79-91.
Brons J., Bullough J., Rea M. Outdoor site-lighting performance: A comprehensive and quantitative framework for assessing light pollution. Lighting Research and Technology 2008; 40: 201-224.
Weale R. Spectral sensitivity and wave-length discrimination of the peripheral retina . Journal of Physiology 1953; 119: 170-190.
Wooten B., Fuld K., Spillmann L. Photopic spectral sensitivity of the peripheral retina. Journal of the Optical Society of America 1975; 65: 334-342.
Berman SM Implications of rod sensitivity to interior lighting practice: Proceedings of the CIE Symposium on Advances in Photometry. Vienna : CIE, 1994.
Fotios SA, Levermore GJ Chromatic effects on apparent brightness in interior spaces II: SWS lumens model. Lighting Research and Technology 1998 ; 30: 103-106.
Okawa M., Kobayashi S., Okajima K. Study on the effect of light source spectrum on apparent road surface brightness: Proceedings of the International Symposium on Automotive Lighting. München: Herbert Utz, 2009.
Bullough JD Spectral sensitivity for extrafoveal discomfort glare. Journal of Modern Optics 2009; 56: 1518-1522.
Stiles WS Visual factors in lighting. Illuminating Engineering 1954; 49: 77-97.
Rea M., Deng L., Wolsey R. Lighting Answers: Light Sources and Color. Troy: Lighting Research Center, Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, 2004.
Ishihara S. Tests for Colour-Blindness. London: H.K. Lewis, 1960.
Fotios SA Lamp colour properties and apparent brightness: A review. Lighting Research and Technology 2001; 33: 163-181.
Haig C. The course of rod dark adaptation as influenced by the intensity and duration of pre-adaptation to light. Journal of General Physiology 1941; 24: 735-751.
Graham C., Kemp E. Brightness discrimination as a function of the duration of the increment in intensity. Journal of General Physiology 1938 ; 21: 635-650.
Blackwell HR, Moldauer AB Detection Thresholds for Point Sources in the Near Periphery. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan, 1958.
Illuminating Engineering Society of North America. Lighting for Exterior Environments. New York: IESNA, 1999, RP-33-99.
Illuminating Engineering Society of North America. American National Standard Practice for Roadway Lighting . New York: IESNA, 2000, RP-8-00.
Rea M. Essay by invitation. Lighting Design and Application 1996; 26: 15-16.
Freyssinier J., Rea M., Bullough J. Brightness contrast perception in the mesopic region. Ophthalmic and Physiological Optics 2006; 26: 300-312.
Berson DM, Dunn FA, Takao M. Phototransduction by retinal ganglion cells that set the circadian clock. Science 2002; 295: 1070-1073.
Dacey DM, Liao HW, Peterson BB, Robinson FR, Smith VC, Pokorny J., Yau KW, Gamlin PD Melanopsin-expressing ganglion cells in primate retina signal colour and irradiance and project to the LGN. Nature 2005; 433: 749-754.
Akashi Y., Myer MA, Boyce PR Identifying sparkle. Lighting Research and Technology 2006; 38: 325-337.
Boyce PR Investigations of the subjective balance between illuminance and lamp colour properties. Lighting Research and Technology 1977; 9: 11-24.
Boyce PR, Cuttle C. Effect of correlated colour temperature on the perception of interiors and colour discrimination performance. Lighting Research and Technology 1990; 22: 19-36.
Fotios SA, Levermore GJ Chromatic effect on apparent brightness in interior spaces, II: SWS lumens model. Lighting Research and Technology 1998 ; 30: 103-106.
Fotios SA, Houser KW, Cheal C. Counterbalancing needed to avoid bias in side-by-side brightness matching tasks. Leukos 2008; 4: 207-223.
Wooten BR, Fuld K., Spillmann L. Photopic spectral sensitivity of the peripheral retina. Journal of the Optical Society of America 1975; 65: 334-342.
Commission Internationale de l’Eclairage. CIE 141-2001 Testing of Supplementary Systems of Photometry. Vienna: CIE, 2001.
Sagawa K. Toward a CIE supplementary system of photometry: Brightness at any level including mesopic vision. Ophthalmic and Physiological Optics 2006; 26: 240-245.
Bodrogi P., Vas Z., Haferkemper N., Varady G., Schiller Ch, Khanh TQ, Schanda J. Effect of chromatic mechanisms on the detection of mesopic incremental targets at different eccentricities. Ophthalmic and Physiological Optics 2010; 30: 85-94.
Ikeda M., Ikeda J., Ayama M. Specification of individual variation in luminous efficiency for brightness . Color Research and Application 1992; 17: 31-44.
Yaguchi H., Kawada A., Shioiri S., Miyake Y. Individual differences of the contribution of chromatic channels to brightness . Journal of the Optical Society of America 1993; 10: 1373-1379.
Weale R. Spectral sensitivity and wave-length discrimination of the peripheral retina . Journal of Physiology 1953; 119: 170-190.
Stiles WS Visual factors in lighting. Illuminating Engineering 1954; 49: 77-97.
Wooten B., Fuld K., Spillmann L. Photopic spectral sensitivity of the peripheral retina. Journal of the Optical Society of America 1975; 65: 334-342.
Fotios SA, Levermore GJ Chromatic effects on apparent brightness in interior spaces II: SWS lumens model. Lighting Research and Technology 1998 ; 30: 103-106.
Bullough JD, Fu Z., Van Derlofske J. Discomfort and disability glare from halogen and HID headlamp systems. In: Holt DJ, editor. Advances in Lighting Technology. Warrendale: Society of Automotive Engineers, 2003: 243-247.
Okawa M., Kobayashi S., Okajima K. Study on the effect of light source spectrum on apparent road surface brightness: Proceedings of the International Symposium on Automotive Lighting. München: Herbert Utz, 2009.
Rea M., Bullough J., Akashi Y. Several views of metal halide and high pressure sodium lighting for outdoor applications. Lighting Research and Technology 2009; 41: 297-320.
Fotios S., Cheal C. Lighting for subsidiary streets: Investigation of lamps of different SPD. Part 2-Brightness. Lighting Research and Technology 2007; 39: 233-252.
Haig C. The course of rod dark adaptation as influenced by the intensity and duration of pre-adaptation to light. Journal of General Physiology 1941; 24: 735-751.
Graham C., Kemp E. Brightness discrimination as a function of the duration of the increment in intensity. Journal of General Physiology 1938 ; 21: 635-650.
Rea M. Essay by invitation. Lighting Design and Application 1996; 26: 15-16.
Rea M., Bullough J., Freyssinier-Nova J., Bierman A. A proposed unified system of photometry. Lighting Research and Technology 2004; 36: 85-111.
He Y., Rea M., Bierman A., Bullough J. Evaluating light source efficacy under mesopic conditions using reaction times . Journal of the Illuminating Engineering Society 1997; 26: 125-138.
Bierman A., He Y., Rea MS Visual reaction times: Method for measuring small differences. Lighting Research and Technology 1998; 30: 169-174.
He Y., Bierman A., Rea MS A system of mesopic photometry. Lighting Research and Technology 1998; 30: 175-181.
Bullough JD, Rea MS Simulated driving performance and peripheral detection at mesopic and low photopic light levels. Lighting Research and Technology 2000; 32: 194-198.
Lennie P., Pokorny J., Smith V. . Luminance. Journal of the Optical Society of America A 1993; 10: 1283-1293.
Rea M. Calibration of subjective scaling responses. Lighting Research and Technology 1982; 14: 121-129.

Cite article

Cite article

Cite article

OR

Download to reference manager

If you have citation software installed, you can download article citation data to the citation manager of your choice

Share options

Share

Share this article

Share with email
EMAIL ARTICLE LINK

Share access to this article

Sharing links are not relevant where the article is open access and not available if you do not have a subscription.

For more information view the Sage Journals article sharing page.

Information, rights and permissions

Information

Published In

Article first published online: June 8, 2010
Issue published: March 2011

Rights and permissions

© The Chartered Institution of Building Services Engineers 2011.
Request permissions for this article.

History

Published online: June 8, 2010
Issue published: March 2011

Authors

Affiliations

MS Rea, PhD
Lighting Research Center, Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, 21 Union St., Troy, NY 12180, USA
LC Radetsky, BS
Lighting Research Center, Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, 21 Union St., Troy, NY 12180, USA
JD Bullough, PhD
Lighting Research Center, Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, 21 Union St., Troy, NY 12180, USA, [email protected]

Metrics and citations

Metrics

Journals metrics

This article was published in Lighting Research & Technology.

VIEW ALL JOURNAL METRICS

Article usage*

Total views and downloads: 241

*Article usage tracking started in December 2016

Altmetric

See the impact this article is making through the number of times it’s been read, and the Altmetric Score.
Learn more about the Altmetric Scores


Articles citing this one

Web of Science: 61 view articles Opens in new tab

Crossref: 63

  1. Performance investigation of different headlights used in vehicles und...
    Go to citation Crossref Google Scholar
  2. Factors Affecting Pedestrians’ Perceptions of Safety, Comfort, and Ple...
    Go to citation Crossref Google Scholar
  3. Pedestrians’ psychological preferences for urban street lighting with ...
    Go to citation Crossref Google Scholar
  4. The impact of melanopic illuminance and CCT on spatial brightness perc...
    Go to citation Crossref Google Scholar
  5. The Effect of Spectral Power Distribution of White Light-Emitting Diod...
    Go to citation Crossref Google Scholar
  6. Rational Basis for Light Emitting Diode Street Lighting Retrofit Lumin...
    Go to citation Crossref Google Scholar
  7. Dynamic reflective color pixels based on molybdenum oxide
    Go to citation Crossref Google Scholar
  8. Intensity and ratios of light affecting perception of space, co-presen...
    Go to citation Crossref Google Scholar
  9. Light Pollution
    Go to citation Crossref Google Scholar
  10. Predictions of melatonin suppression during the early biological night...
    Go to citation Crossref Google Scholar
  11. Brightness In The Photopic Range: Psychophysical Modelling With Blue-s...
    Go to citation Crossref Google Scholar
  12. The Circadian Effect Versus Mesopic Vision Effect in Road Lighting App...
    Go to citation Crossref Google Scholar
  13. Impacts of average illuminance, spectral distribution, and uniformity ...
    Go to citation Crossref Google Scholar
  14. Video Analysis of Pedestrian Movement (VAPM) under Different Lighting ...
    Go to citation Crossref Google Scholar
  15. Influence of Background Spectral Distribution on Perceptions of Discom...
    Go to citation Crossref Google Scholar
  16. Luminance calculation method accounting for mesopic vision and fog pen...
    Go to citation Crossref Google Scholar
  17. Investigating Blue‐Light Exposure from: Lighting and Displays
    Go to citation Crossref Google Scholar
  18. Evaluating the blue-light hazard from solid state lighting
    Go to citation Crossref Google Scholar
  19. Impacts of Flashing Emergency Lights and Vehicle-Mounted Illumination ...
    Go to citation Crossref Google Scholar
  20. The benefits of light at night
    Go to citation Crossref Google Scholar
  21. Color brightness model and its imaging applications
    Go to citation Crossref Google Scholar
  22. Lighting simply made better: Providing a full range of benefits withou...
    Go to citation Crossref Google Scholar
  23. Cone and melanopsin contributions to human brightness estimation: comm...
    Go to citation Crossref Google Scholar
  24. Assessing glare, Part 3: Glare sources having different colours
    Go to citation Crossref Google Scholar
  25. Light as a circadian stimulus for architectural lighting
    Go to citation Crossref Google Scholar
  26. A new rationale for setting light source luminous efficacy requirement...
    Go to citation Crossref Google Scholar
  27. The what and the where of vision lighting research
    Go to citation Crossref Google Scholar
  28. Road lighting research for drivers and pedestrians: The basis of lumin...
    Go to citation Crossref Google Scholar
  29. LEDs and automotive lighting applications
    Go to citation Crossref Google Scholar
  30. Metameric Light Sources: A Recent Paradigm for Functional Lighting
    Go to citation Crossref Google Scholar
  31. Parking lot lighting based upon predictions of scene brightness and pe...
    Go to citation Crossref Google Scholar
  32. Lighting Matters in Industrial Environments: A Framework Linking Workp...
    Go to citation Crossref Google Scholar
  33. Investigating the chromatic contribution to recognition of facial expr...
    Go to citation Crossref Google Scholar
  34. Investigating visual mechanisms underlying scene brightness
    Go to citation Crossref Google Scholar
  35. The NICU Lighted Environment
    Go to citation Crossref Google Scholar
  36. Scene brightness of illuminated interiors
    Go to citation Crossref Google Scholar
  37. Spectral sensitivity and scene brightness at low to moderate photopic ...
    Go to citation Crossref Google Scholar
  38. Vision and Lighting
    Go to citation Crossref Google Scholar
  39. Spectral considerations for outdoor lighting: Designing for perceived ...
    Go to citation Crossref Google Scholar
  40. Spectral considerations for outdoor lighting: Consequences for sky glo...
    Go to citation Crossref Google Scholar
  41. Impact of light on safety in industrial environments
    Go to citation Crossref Google Scholar
  42. Lamp spectrum and spatial brightness at photopic levels: Investigating...
    Go to citation Crossref Google Scholar
  43. The lumen seen in a new light: Making distinctions between light, ligh...
    Go to citation Crossref Google Scholar
  44. Lamp spectrum and spatial brightness at photopic levels: A basis for d...
    Go to citation Crossref Google Scholar
  45. Spectral Sensitivity Modeling and Nighttime Scene Brightness Perceptio...
    Go to citation Crossref Google Scholar
  46. Mesopic Vision
    Go to citation Crossref Google Scholar
  47. Influence of Lighting Elements in Outdoor Space at Night on the Evalua...
    Go to citation Crossref Google Scholar
  48. A proposal for a simplified model to evaluate the circadian effects of...
    Go to citation Crossref Google Scholar
  49. Yellow is green: An opportunity for energy savings through colour in a...
    Go to citation Crossref Google Scholar
  50. References
    Go to citation Crossref Google Scholar
  51. Influence of Spectral Power Distribution on Scene Brightness at Differ...
    Go to citation Crossref Google Scholar
  52. LEDs in automotive lighting
    Go to citation Crossref Google Scholar
  53. Lit environments quality: A software for the analysis of luminance map...
    Go to citation Crossref Google Scholar
  54. White lighting for residential applications
    Go to citation Crossref Google Scholar
  55. Using Forced Choice Discrimination to Measure the Perceptual Response ...
    Go to citation Crossref Google Scholar
  56. White light by LED—mechanism of generation and evaluation of quality
    Go to citation Crossref Google Scholar
  57. Development of a Guide for Replacement of Roadway Lighting with New Li...
    Go to citation Crossref Google Scholar
  58. Modelling the spectral sensitivity of the human circadian system
    Go to citation Crossref Google Scholar
  59. Spatial Brightness Perception of Trichromatic Stimuli
    Go to citation Crossref Google Scholar
  60. Configuring a spectral power distribution for effective colour renderi...
    Go to citation Crossref Google Scholar
  61. Glare's Causes, Consequences, and Clinical Challenges After a Century ...
    Go to citation Crossref Google Scholar
  62. White light brightness–luminance relationship
    Go to citation Crossref Google Scholar
  63. Comparative in Situ Study of LEDs and HPS in Road Lighting
    Go to citation Crossref Google Scholar

Figures and tables

Figures & Media

Tables

View Options

Get access

Access options

If you have access to journal content via a personal subscription, university, library, employer or society, select from the options below:

CIBSE members can access this journal content using society membership credentials.

CIBSE members can access this journal content using society membership credentials.


Alternatively, view purchase options below:

Purchase 24 hour online access to view and download content.

Access journal content via a DeepDyve subscription or find out more about this option.

View options

PDF/ePub

View PDF/ePub