![[PDF]](/pb-assets/Icons/adobe-pdf-icon-1498649896243.png){kind=icon}
Abstract
In November 1996, voters cast ballots for candidates running for 57 seats on 15 community advising and zoning boards in Miami-Dade County, Florida. Voters had little knowledge about the candidates or the boards that had been created only a few months earlier. The candidates campaigned for seven weeks. The local media generally ignored them. There were no incumbents and no party labels in the nonpartisan contests. In low-information local elections such as these, voter cues and ballot design plays a decisive role in voter choice. The cues in this election were candidates' gender, ethnicity, campaign expenditures, and ballot position. Our results indicate that the most important cue was candidate gender; however, voters used ethnicity to decide whether they voted for men or women. The number of candidates on the ballot impacted vote share, while ballot position played no significant role. Those candidates who spent the most campaign money were also preferred. We argue that vote cues provide a means to address voter fatigue, where gender, ethnicity, and name recognition provide cues in this low-information, high voter fatigue situation. Our results suggest that by spending greater on their campaigns, Hispanic women—the most disadvantaged of the candidates—could run competitively against Hispanic men.
References
|
Abramowitz, Alan . 1988. “Explaining Senate Election Outcomes.” American Political Science Review 82: 385–404. Google Scholar | Crossref | ISI | |
|
Adams, William C. 1975. “Candidate Characteristics, Office of Election, and Voter Responses.” Experimental Study of Politics 4: 76–91. Google Scholar | |
|
Affigne, T. 2000. “Latino Politics in the United States: An Introduction.” PS: Political Science and Politics 33: 523–7. Google Scholar | Crossref | |
|
Barreto, Matt A., Villarreal, Mario, Woods, Nathan D.. 2005. “Metropolitan Latino Political Behavior: Voter Turnout and Candidate Preference in Los Angeles.” Journal of Urban Affairs 27: 71–91. Google Scholar | Crossref | ISI | |
|
Black, J.H., Erickson, and L.. 2001. “Women Candidates and Voter Bias: Do Women Politicians Need to Be Better?” Electoral Studies 22: 81–100. Google Scholar | Crossref | |
|
Bledsoe, Timothy, Welch, Susan. 1985. “The Effects of Political Structure on the Socio-Economic Characteristics of Urban City Council Members.” American Politics Quarterly 13: 467–84. Google Scholar | SAGE Journals | |
|
Borjas, George . 1999. Heaven's Door. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. Google Scholar | |
|
Bovitz, Gregory L. 2002. “Electoral Consequences of Porkbusting in the U.S. House of Representatives.” Political Science Quarterly 117: 455–75. Google Scholar | Crossref | |
|
Bowler, Shaun, Donovan, Todd, Happ, Trudi. 1992. “Ballot Propositions and Information Costs: Direct Democracy and the Fatigued Voter.” Western Political Quarterly 45: 559–68. Google Scholar | SAGE Journals | |
|
Branch, Karen . 1996. “Real Estate Interests Zone in on Seats,” The Miami Herald, 30 October, B1. Google Scholar | |
|
Breaux, David A., Gierzynski, Anthony. 1991. “It's Money that Matters: Campaign Expenditures and State Legislative Primaries.” Legislative Studies Quarterly 16: 429–43. Google Scholar | Crossref | ISI | |
|
Brockington, David . 2003. “A Low Information Theory of Ballot Position Effect.” Political Behavior 25: 1–27. Google Scholar | Crossref | |
|
Brown, Clyde, Heighberger, Neil R., Shocket, Peter A.. 1993. “Gender-Based Differences in Perceptions of Male and Female City Council Candidates.” Women and Politics 13: 1–17. Google Scholar | Crossref | |
|
Bullock, Charles S. . 1994. “Section 2 of the Voting Rights Act, Districting Formats, and the Election of African Americans.” Journal of Politics 56: 1098–105. Google Scholar | Crossref | |
|
Bullock, Charles S., Gaddie, Ronald K., Ferrington, Anders. 2002. “System Structure, Campaign Stimuli and Voter Falloff in Runoff Primaries.” Journal of Politics 64: 1210–24. Google Scholar | Crossref | |
|
Byrne, Gary C., Kristian Pueschel, J.. 1973. “But Who Shall I Vote for County Coroner?” Journal of Politics 36: 778–84. Google Scholar | Crossref | |
|
Cain, Bruce, Roderick Kiewiet, D., Uhlaner, Carole. 1990. “Race, Ideology, and Economics Shape Immigrant Party Preferences.” Public Affairs Report. Berkeley, CA: University of California, Berkeley. Google Scholar | |
|
Caraway, Nancie E. 1999. “The Riddle of Consciousness: Racism and Identity in Feminist Theory.” In Women in Politics: Outsiders or Insiders?, ed. Duke Whitaker, Lois . 3rd ed. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall. Google Scholar | |
|
Carroll, Susan J. 1985. Women as Candidates in American Politics. Bloomington, IN: Indiana University Press. Google Scholar | |
|
Cassell, Carol A. 1986. “The Nonpartisan Ballot in the United States.” In Electoral Laws and Their Political Consequences, eds. Grofman, Bernard, Lijphart, Arend. New York: Agathon. Google Scholar | |
|
Cohen, Cathy J., Jones, Kathleen B., Tronto, Joan, eds. 1997. Women Transforming Politics: An Alternative Reader. New York: New York University Press. Google Scholar | |
|
Connaughton, Stacey L., Jarvis, Sharon E.. 2004. “Invitations for Partisan Identification: Attempts to Court Latino Voters through Televised Latino-Oriented Political Advertisements, 1984-2000.” Journal of Communication 54: 38–54. Google Scholar | |
|
Cook, Elizabeth . 1994. “Voter Responses to Women Senate Candidates.” In The Year of the Woman: Myths and Realities, eds. Cook, Elizabeth, Thomas, Sue, Wilcox, Clyde. Boulder, CO: Westview Press. Google Scholar | |
|
Cook, Elizabeth, Thomas, Sue, Wilcox, Clyde, eds. 1994. The Year of the Woman: Myths and Realities. Boulder, CO: Westview Press. Google Scholar | |
|
Darcy, Robert, McAllister, Ian. 1990. “Ballot Position Effects.” Electoral Studies 9: 5–17. Google Scholar | Crossref | |
|
De Leon, B. 1995. “Sex Role Identity among College Students: A Cross-Cultural Analysis.” In Hispanic Psychology: Critical Issues in Theory and Research, ed. Padilla, A. M. . Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. Google Scholar | Crossref | |
|
Delli-Carpini, M.X., Huddy, Leonie, Shapiro, and R.Y., eds. 1994. Research in Micropolitics: New Directions in Political Psychology. Vol. 4. Greenwich, CT: JAL. Google Scholar | |
|
Eagly, Alice H., Mladinic, Antonio. 1989. “Gender Stereotypes and Attitudes toward Women and Men.” Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin 15: 543–58. Google Scholar | SAGE Journals | ISI | |
|
Esses, Victoria M., Haddock, Geoffrey, Zanna, Mark P.. 1993. “Values, Stereotypes and Emotions as Determinants of Inter-group Attitudes.” In Affect, Cognition, and Stereotyping: Interactive Process in Group Perceptions, eds. Mackie, Diane M., Hamilton, David L.. San Diego, CA: Academic Press. Google Scholar | |
|
Fiedler, Tom . 1998. “Bloc Voting a Reality of the Ballot Box,” The Miami Herald, 8 September, A1. Google Scholar | |
|
Finefrock, Don . 1996. “Dade to Give Local Areas Zoning Power,” The Miami Herald, 6 September, A1. Google Scholar | |
|
Fitzpatrick, Joseph . 1971. Puerto Rican Americans: The Meaning of Migration. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall. Google Scholar | |
|
Flannelly, Kevin J. 2002. “Voting for Female Candidates: Effects of Voters' Age, Ethnicity and Gender.” Journal of Social Psychology 142: 397–9. Google Scholar | Crossref | Medline | |
|
Florida Department of State, Division of Elections . 2004. The Election Laws of the State of Florida. http://election.dos.state.fl.us/publications/pdf/electionLaws.pdf (September 12, 2005). Google Scholar | |
|
Fox, Richard L., Smith, Eric R.A.N.. 1998. “The Role of Candidate Sex in Voter Decision-Making.” Political Psychology 19: 403–19. Google Scholar | Crossref | |
|
Fox, Richard L., Oxley, Zoe M.. 2003. “Gender Stereotyping in State Executive Elections: Candidate Selection and Success.” Journal of Politics 65: 833–50. Google Scholar | Crossref | ISI | |
|
Gaddie, Ronald K., Bullock, Charles S.. 2000. Elections to Open Seats in the U.S. House: Where the Action Is. Lanham, MD: Rowman and Littlefield. Google Scholar | |
|
Gerber, Alan S. 2004. “Does Campaign Spending Work?” American Behavioral Scientist 47: 541–74. Google Scholar | SAGE Journals | |
|
Gierzynski, Anthony, Breaux, David. 1991. “Money and Votes in State Legislative Elections.” Legislative Studies Quarterly 16: 203–17. Google Scholar | Crossref | ISI | |
|
Gierzynski, Anthony, Kleppner, Paul, Lewis, John. 1998. “Money or the Machine: Money and Votes in Chicago Aldermanic Elections.” American Politics Quarterly 26: 160–73. Google Scholar | SAGE Journals | |
|
Gimenez, Martha E., Lopez, Fred A., Munoz, Carlos 1992. “Introduction: The Politics of Ethnic Construction: Hispanic, Chicano, Latino.” Latin American Perspectives 75: 3–6. Google Scholar | SAGE Journals | |
|
Golden, Alan . 2001. “Disputed Ballots, Partisan Conflict and Constitutional Uncertainty.” American Behavioral Scientist 44: 2252–68. Google Scholar | SAGE Journals | |
|
Grebler, Leo, Moore, Jan, Guzman, Ralph. 1970. The Mexican American People. New York: Free Press. Google Scholar | |
|
Green, Donald P., Krasno, Jonathan S.. 1988. “Salvation for the Spendthrift Incumbent: Re-estimating the Effects of Campaign Spending in House Elections.” American Journal of Political Science 32: 884–907. Google Scholar | Crossref | ISI | |
|
Green, Joanne Connor . 1998. “The Role of Gender in Open-Seat Elections for the U.S. House of Representatives: A District Level Test for a Differential Value for Campaign Resources.” Women and Politics 19: 33–55. Google Scholar | Crossref | |
|
Grofman, Bernard, Lijphart, Arend, eds. 1986. Electoral Laws and Their Political Consequences. New York: Agathon. Google Scholar | |
|
Hajnal, Zoltan L., Gerber, Elisabeth R., Louch, Hugh. 2002. “Minorities and Direct Legislation: Evidence from the California Ballot Proposition Elections.” Journal of Politics 64: 154–77. Google Scholar | Crossref | |
|
Hamilton, James T. 1996. “Biased Ballots?” Public Choice 87: 259–80. Google Scholar | Crossref | |
|
Hardy-Fanta, Carol . 1993. Latina Politics, Latino Politics: Gender, Culture and Political Participation in Boston. Philadelphia, PA: Temple University Press. Google Scholar | |
|
Herron, M.C., Sekhorn, and J.S.. 2003. “Over-voting and Representation: An Examination of Over-voted Presidential Ballots in Broward and Miami-Dade Counties.” Electoral Studies 22: 21–47. Google Scholar | Crossref | |
|
Hill, Kevin A., Moreno, Dario. 1996. “Second-Generation Cubans.” Hispanic Journal of Behavioral Science 18: 175–93. Google Scholar | SAGE Journals | |
|
Huddy, Leonie . 1994. “The Political Significance of Voters' Gender Stereotypes.” In Research in Micropolitics: New Directions in Political Psychology, eds. Delli-Carpini, M.X., Huddy, Leonie, Shapiro, and R.Y.. Vol. 4. Greenwich, CT: JAL. Google Scholar | |
|
Huddy, Leonie . 2001. “From Social to Political Identity: A Critical Examination of Social Identity Theory.” Political Psychology 22: 127–56. Google Scholar | Crossref | ISI | |
|
Huddy, Leonie, Terkildsen, Nayda. 1993. “The Consequences of Gender Stereotypes for Women Candidates at Different Levels and Types of Offices.” Political Research Quarterly 46: 503–25. Google Scholar | SAGE Journals | ISI | |
|
Jacobson, Gary C. 1980. Money in Congressional Elections. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press. Google Scholar | |
|
Karnig, Albert, Welch, Susan. 1981. Black Representation and Urban Public Policy. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. Google Scholar | |
|
Karp, Jeffrey A. 1995. “Explaining Public Support for Legislative Term Limits.” Public Opinion Quarterly 59: 373–91. Google Scholar | Crossref | ISI | |
|
Kaufmann, Karen M. 2003a. “Black and Latino Voters in Denver: Responses to Each Other's Political Leadership.” Political Science Quarterly 118: 107–25. Google Scholar | Crossref | |
|
Kaufmann, Karen M. 2003b. “Cracks in the Rainbow: Group Commonality as a Basis for Latino and African-American Political Coalitions.” Political Research Quarterly 56: 199–210. Google Scholar | SAGE Journals | |
|
Klein, David, Baum, Lawrence. 2001. “Ballot Information and Voting Decisions in Judicial Elections.” Political Research Quarterly 54: 709–28. Google Scholar | SAGE Journals | ISI | |
|
Koch, Jeffrey W. 1999. “Candidate Gender and Assessments of Senate Candidates.” Social Science Quarterly 80: 84–96. Google Scholar | ISI | |
|
Koch, Jeffrey W. 2000. “Do Citizens Apply Gender Stereotypes to Infer Candidates' Ideological Orientations?” Journal of Politics 62: 414–29. Google Scholar | Crossref | |
|
Krebs, Timothy . 1998. “The Determinants of Candidates' Vote Share and the Advantages of Incumbency in City Council Elections.” American Journal of Political Science 42: 921–35. Google Scholar | Crossref | |
|
Lee, Eugene C. 1960. The Politics of Nonpartisanship: A Study of California City Elections. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press. Google Scholar | |
|
Leeper, Mark . 1991. “The Impact of Prejudice on Female Candidates: An Experimental Look at Voter Inference.” American Politics Quarterly 18: 248–61. Google Scholar | SAGE Journals | |
|
Leighley, Jan E., Nagler, Jonathan. 1992. “Individual and Systematic Influences on Turnout: Who Votes? 1984.” Journal of Politics 54: 718–40. Google Scholar | Crossref | |
|
Lien, Pei-Te . 1998. “Does the Gender Gap in Political Attitudes and Behavior Vary across Racial Groups?” Political Research Quarterly 51: 869–94. Google Scholar | SAGE Journals | |
|
Lieske, Joel . 1989. “The Political Dynamics of Urban Voting Behavior.” American Journal of Political Science 33: 150–74. Google Scholar | Crossref | ISI | |
|
Longoria, Thomas 1999. “The Impact of Office on Cross-Racial Voting: Evidence from the 1996 Milwaukee Mayoral Election.” Urban Affairs Review 34: 596–603. Google Scholar | SAGE Journals | |
|
Lupia, Arthur . 1994. “Shortcuts versus Encyclopedias: Information and Voting Behavior in California Insurance Reform Elections.” American Political Science Review 88: 63–76. Google Scholar | Crossref | ISI | |
|
Mackie, Diane M., Hamilton, David L., eds. 1993. Affect, Cognition, and Stereotyping: Interactive Process in Group Perceptions. San Diego, CA: Academic Press. Google Scholar | |
|
MacManus, Susan A., Bullock, Charles S.. 1992. “Electing Women to City Council: A Focus on Small Cities.” In The Impact of Electoral Systems on Minorities and Women, eds. Zimmerman, Joseph F., Rule, Wilma. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press. Google Scholar | |
|
McClain, Paula D., Tauber, Steven C.. 2001. “Racial Minority Group Relations in a Multiracial Society.” In Governing American Cities: Interethnic Coalitions, Competition and Conflict, ed. Jones-Correa, Michael . New York: Sage. Google Scholar | |
|
McDermott, Monika L. 1997. “Voting Cues in Low-Information Elections: Candidate Gender as a Social Information Variable in Contemporary United States Elections.” American Journal of Political Science 41: 270–83. Google Scholar | Crossref | ISI | |
|
McDermott, Monika L. 1998. “Race and Gender Cues in Low-Information Elections.” Political Research Quarterly 51: 898–918. Google Scholar | SAGE Journals | |
|
Meier, Kenneth J., Stewart, Joseph. 1991. “Cooperation and Conflict in Multiracial School Districts.” Journal of Politics 53: 1123–33. Google Scholar | Crossref | ISI | |
|
Miami-Dade Supervisor of Elections Results Archive. 1996. http://elections.metro-dade.com/ELE96310/nov596.txt (September 12, 2005). Google Scholar | |
|
Miller, Joanne M., Krosnick, Jon A.. 1998. “The Impact of Candidate Name Order on Election Outcomes.” Public Opinion Quarterly 62: 291–330. Google Scholar | Crossref | ISI | |
|
Mitchell, Cleta Deatherage . 1991. “Limiting Congressional Terms: A Return to Democracy.” Journal of Law and Politics 7: 722–45. Google Scholar | |
|
Mohl, Raymond A. 1988. “Ethnic Politics in Miami, 1960-1986.” In Shades of the Sunbelt: Essays on Ethnicity, Race, and the Urban South, eds. Miller, Randall M., Pozzetta, George E.. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press. Google Scholar | |
|
Montoya, Lisa J. 1996. “Latino Gender Differences in Public Opinion: Results from the Latino National Political Survey.” Hispanic Journal of Behavioral Science 18: 255–76. Google Scholar | SAGE Journals | |
|
Montoya, Lisa J., Hardy-Fanta, Carol, Garcia, Sonia. 2000. “Latina Politics: Gender, Participation and Leadership.” PS: Political Science and Politics 33: 555–61. Google Scholar | Crossref | |
|
Muller, John . 1970. “Choosing among 133 Candidates.” Public Opinion Quarterly 34: 395–402. Google Scholar | Crossref | |
|
Murray, R., Vedlitz, and A.. 1978. “Racial Voting Patterns in the South: An Analysis of Major Elections from 1960 to 1977 in Five Cities.” Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science 439: 290–9. Google Scholar | SAGE Journals | |
|
Nicholson-Crotty, Sean, Meier, Kenneth. 2002. “Size Doesn't Matter: In Defense of Single State Studies.” State Politics and Policy Quarterly 2: 411–22. Google Scholar | SAGE Journals | |
|
Niemi, Richard G., Herrnson, Paul S.. 2003. “Ballot Design: How to Improve Life at the Ballot Box.” Spectrum: The Journal of State Government 76: 35–9. Google Scholar | |
|
Oliver, J. Eric, Wong, Janelle. 2003. “Inter-group Politics in Multiethnic Settings.” American Journal of Political Science 47: 567–82. Google Scholar | Crossref | |
|
O'Sullivan, Chris S., Chen, Audrey, Mohapatra, Simani, Sigelman, Lee, Lewis, Erik. 1988. “Voting in Ignorance: The Politics of Smooth-Sounding Names.” Journal of Applied Social Psychology 18: 1094–106. Google Scholar | Crossref | ISI | |
|
Padilla, A.M. , ed. 1995. Hispanic Psychology: Critical Issues in Theory and Research. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. Google Scholar | Crossref | |
|
Pomper, Gerald M. 1975. Voters' Choice: Varieties of American Electoral Behavior. New York: Dodd Meade. Google Scholar | |
|
Prindeville, Diane-Michelle . 2003. “Identity and Politics of American Indian and Hispanic Women Leaders.” Gender and Society 17: 591–608. Google Scholar | SAGE Journals | |
|
Rahn, Wendy M. 1993. “The Role of Partisan Stereotypes in Information Processing about Political Candidates.” American Journal of Political Science 37: 472–96. Google Scholar | Crossref | ISI | |
|
Rapoport, Ronald B., Metcalf, Kelly L., Hartman, Jon A.. 1989. “Candidate Traits and Voter Inferences: An Experimental Study.” Journal of Politics 51: 917–32. Google Scholar | Crossref | |
|
Raymond, Paul . 1992. “The American Voter in a Nonpartisan, Urban Election.” American Politics Quarterly 20: 247–60. Google Scholar | SAGE Journals | |
|
Rule, Wilma . 1994. “Women's Under-representation and Electoral Systems.” PS: Political Science and Politics 27: 689–92. Google Scholar | Crossref | |
|
Sanbonmatsu, Kira . 2002. “Gender Stereotypes and Vote Choice.” American Journal of Political Science 46: 20–34. Google Scholar | Crossref | ISI | |
|
Sanbonmatsu, Kira . 2003. “Political Knowledge and Gender Stereotypes.” American Politics Research 31: 575–94. Google Scholar | SAGE Journals | |
|
Sanders, H. T. 1982. “The Government of American Cities.” In The Municipal Yearbook. Washington, DC: International City Managers Association. Google Scholar | |
|
Sapiro, Virginia . 1981-82. “If U.S. Senator Baker Were a Woman: An Experimental Study of Candidate Images.” Political Psychology 2: 61–83. Google Scholar | Crossref | |
|
Sass, Tim R. 2000. “The Determinants of Hispanic Representation in Municipal Government.” Southern Economic Journal 66: 609–30. Google Scholar | Crossref | |
|
Schaffner, Brian, Streb, Matthew, Wright, Gerald. 2001. “Teams without Uniforms: The Nonpartisan Ballot in State and Local Elections.” Political Research Quarterly 54: 7–30. Google Scholar | SAGE Journals | ISI | |
|
Seltzer, Richard A., Newman, Jody, Leighton, Melissa. 1997. Sex as a Political Variable: Women as Candidates and Voters in U.S. Elections. London: Lynne Rienner. Google Scholar | |
|
Sherrill, Kenneth . 1998. “The Dangers of Non-Partisan Elections to Democracy.” Social Policy 28: 15–22. Google Scholar | |
|
Sigelman, Lee, Sigelman, Carol K., 1982. “Sexism, Racism and Ageism in Voting Behavior: An Experimental Analysis.” Social Psychology Quarterly 45: 263–9. Google Scholar | Crossref | |
|
Squire, Peverill, Smith, Eric. 1988. “The Effect of Partisan Information on Voters in Nonpartisan Elections.” Journal of Politics 50: 169–79. Google Scholar | Crossref | ISI | |
|
Stack, John F., Warren, Christopher L.. 1990. “Ethnicity and the Politics of Symbolism in Miami's Cuban Community.” Cuban Studies 20: 11–28. Google Scholar | |
|
Stambaugh, Stephen J., O'Regan, Valerie R.. 2003. “Cue Voting: Which Women Vote for Women Senate Candidates?” Politics and Policy 31: 216–31. Google Scholar | Crossref | |
|
Stephan, W. G. 1985. “Inter-Group Relations.” In The Handbook of Social Psychology, eds. Gardner, Lindzey, Aronson, Elliott. Vol. 2. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum. Google Scholar | |
|
Stokes, Atiya Kai . 2003. “Latino Group Consciousness and Political Participation.” American Politics Research 31: 361–78. Google Scholar | SAGE Journals | ISI | |
|
Supervisor of Elections. 1996a. Treasurer's Reports. Dade County, FL. Google Scholar | |
|
Supervisor of Elections. 1996b. Table of Voters by Race and Ethnicity. Dade County, FL. Google Scholar | |
|
of Elections, Supervisor . 1996c. Election Results. Dade County, FL. Google Scholar | |
|
Taebel, Delbert . 1975. “The Effect of Ballot Position on Electoral Success.” American Journal of Political Science 19: 519–26. Google Scholar | Crossref | ISI | |
|
Takash, Paula Cruz . 1997. “Breaking Barriers to Representation: Chicana/Latina Elected Officials in California.” In Women Transforming Politics: An Alternative Reader, eds. Cohen, Cathy J., Jones, Kathleen B., Tronto, Joan C.. New York: New York University Press. Google Scholar | |
|
Tolbert, Caroline J., Hero, Rodney. 2001. “Dealing with Diversity: Racial/Ethnic Context and Social Policy Change.” Political Research Quarterly 54: 571–604. Google Scholar | SAGE Journals | ISI | |
|
Tomz, Michael, Van Houweling, Robert P.. 2003. “How Does Voting Equipment Affect the Racial Gap in Voided Ballots?” American Journal of Political Science 47: 46–64. Google Scholar | Crossref | ISI | |
|
Vanderleeuw, James M. 1990. “A City in Transition: The Impact of Changing Racial Composition on Voting Behavior.” Social Science Quarterly 71: 326–38. Google Scholar | |
|
Vasquez-Nuttall, E., Romero-Garcia, I., De Leon, B.. 1987. “Sex Roles and Perceptions of Femininity and Masculinity of Hispanic Women: A Review of the Literature.” Psychology of Women Quarterly 22: 13–32. Google Scholar | |
|
Walker, Jack L. 1966. “Ballot Forms and Voter Fatigue: An Analysis of the Office Block and Party Column Ballots.” Midwest Journal of Political Science 10: 448–63. Google Scholar | Crossref | |
|
Welch, Susan, Karnig, Albert. 1979. “Correlates of Female Office Holding in City Politics.” Journal of Politics 41: 478–91. Google Scholar | Crossref | ISI | |
|
Welch, Susan, Studlar, Donley T.. 1996. “The Opportunity Structure for Women's Candidacies and Electability in Britain and the United States.” Political Research Quarterly 49: 861–74. Google Scholar | SAGE Journals | |
|
Welch, Susan, Sigelman, Lee. 1982. “Changes in Public Attitudes toward Women in Politics.” Social Science Quarterly 63: 312–22. Google Scholar | |
|
Whitaker, Lois Duke, ed. 1999. Women in Politics: Outsiders or Insiders? 3rd ed. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall. Google Scholar | |
|
Wolfinger, Raymond E. 1965. “The Development and Persistence of Ethnic Voting.” American Political Science Review 59: 896–908. Google Scholar | Crossref | ISI | |
|
Zimmerman, Joseph F. 1994. “The Under-Representation of Women and Minorities in the United States.” In Electoral Systems in Comparative Perspective: Their Impact on Women and Minorities, eds. Rule, Wilma, Zimmerman, Joseph F.. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press. Google Scholar | |
|
Zipp, John F., Plutzer, Eric. 1985. “Gender Difference in Voting for Female Candidates: Evidence from the 1982 Election.” Public Opinion Quarterly 49: 179–97. Google Scholar | Crossref |
