Abstract
This study seeks to examine the relationship between the long-term use of academic support services such as tutoring, learning assistance, and supplemental instruction and retention to graduation. Little research has been devoted to the relationship between academic support and retention to graduation in both the literatures on retention and academic support. The authors use 6 years of data from the University of Louisville's Resources for Academic Achievement unit (REACH) to test the hypotheses that a larger quantity of time spent engaged in academic support services is associated with a higher likelihood of graduation and that cumulative GPA mediates the relationship between hours spent using academic support and graduation. The findings support these hypotheses, suggesting a relationship between academic support and retention to graduation that should be given serious consideration by scholars and administrators.
References
| Afifi, A. A., Kotlerman, J. B., Ettner, S. L. & Cowan, M. (2007). Methods for improving regression analysis for skewed continuous or counted responses. Annual Review of Public Health, 28, 95–111. Google Scholar | Crossref | Medline | ISI | |
| Aitken, N. D. (1982). College student performance, satisfaction and retention: Specification and estimation of a structural model. The Journal of Higher Education, 53(1), 32–50. Google Scholar | ISI | |
| Allen, J. & Sconing, J. (2005). Using ACT assessment scores to set benchmarks for college readiness. ACT Research Report Series. Iowa City, IA: ACT. Google Scholar | |
| Angrist, J., Lang, D. & Oreopoulos, P. (2006). Lead them to water and pay them to drink: An experiment with services and incentives for college achievement. Cambridge, MA: National Bureau of Economic Research. Google Scholar | Crossref | |
| Arendale, D. R. (1994). Understanding the supplemental instruction model. New Directions for Teaching and Learning, 1994(60), 11–21. Google Scholar | Crossref | |
| Astin, A. W. (1984). Student involvement: A developmental theory for higher education. Journal of College Student Personnel, 25(4), 297–308. Google Scholar | ISI | |
| Astin, A. W. (1993). What matters in college? Four critical years revisited. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass. Google Scholar | |
| Baron, R. M. & Kenny, D. A. (1986). The moderator—mediator variable distinction in social psychological research: Conceptual, strategic, and statistical considerations. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 51(6), 1173–1182. Google Scholar | Crossref | Medline | ISI | |
| Beal, P. E. & Noel, L. (1980). What works in student retention. Iowa City. IA: The American Testing Program. Google Scholar | |
| Bean, J. P. (1980). Dropouts and turnover: The synthesis and test of a causal model of student attrition. Research in Higher Education, 12(2), 155–187. Google Scholar | Crossref | ISI | |
| Bean, J. P. & Metzner, B. S. (1985). A conceptual model of nontraditional undergraduate student attrition. Review of Educational Research, 55(4), 485–540. Google Scholar | SAGE Journals | ISI | |
| Beecher, M. & Fischer, L. (1999). High school courses and scores as predictors of college success. Journal of College Admission, 163, 4–9. Google Scholar | |
| Berger, J. B. (2001). Understanding the organizational nature of student persistence: Empirically-based recommendations for practice. Journal of College Student Retention: Research, Theory & Practice, 3(1), 3–21. Google Scholar | SAGE Journals | |
| Blanc, R. A., DeBuhr, L. E. & Martin, D. C. (1983). Breaking the attrition cycle: The effects of supplemental instruction on undergraduate performance and attrition. The Journal of Higher Education, 54(1), 80–90. Google Scholar | Crossref | ISI | |
| Borglum, K. & Kubala, T. (2000). Academic and social integration of community college students: A case study. Community College Journal of Research and Practice, 24(7), 567–576. Google Scholar | Crossref | |
| Braunstein, A., McGrath, M. & Pescatrice, D. (2000). Measuring the impact of financial factors on college persistence. Journal of College Student Retention: Research, Theory & Practice, 2(3), 191–203. Google Scholar | SAGE Journals | |
| Buchmann, C. & DiPrete, T. A. (2006). The growing female advantage in college completion: The role of family background and academic achievement. American Sociological Review, 71(4), 515–541. Google Scholar | SAGE Journals | ISI | |
| Camara, W. J. & Echternacht, G. (2000). The SAT I and high school grades: Utility in predicting success in college. Research Notes (Vol. RN-10; pp. 1–12). New York, NY: The College Board. Google Scholar | |
| Chapman, D. W. & Pascarella, E. T. (1983). Predictors of academic and social integration of college students. Research in Higher Education, 19(3), 295–322. Google Scholar | Crossref | ISI | |
| Chen, R. (2008). Financial aid and student dropout in higher education: A heterogeneous research approach. Higher Education, 23, 209–239. Google Scholar | Crossref | |
| Chickering, A. W. & Gamson, Z. F. (Eds.). (1991). Applying the seven principles for good practice in undergraduate education. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass. Google Scholar | |
| Cohen, P. A., Kulik, J. A. & Kulik, C. L. C. (1982). Educational outcomes of tutoring: A meta-analysis of findings. American Educational Research Journal, 19(2), 237–248. Google Scholar | SAGE Journals | ISI | |
| Colvin, J. W. (2007). Peer tutoring and social dynamics in higher education. Mentoring & Tutoring: Partnership in Learning, 15(2), 165–181. Google Scholar | Crossref | |
| Congos, D. H. (2002). How supplemental instruction stacks up against Chickering. Research and Teaching in Developmental Education, 19(1), 75–83. Google Scholar | |
| Cooper, E. (2010). Tutoring center effectiveness: The effect of drop-in tutoring. Journal of College Reading and Learning, 40(2), 21–34. Google Scholar | Crossref | |
| Cope, R. G. & Hannah, W. (1975). Revolving college doors: The causes and consequences of dropping out, stopping out, and transferring. Hoboken, NJ: Wiley. Google Scholar | |
| Cox, B. E. (2011). Life happens: How non-college life-events influence racial inequality in four-year graduation rates at selective colleges and universities. Ph.D. dissertation, Pennsylvania State University, University Park (3417713). Google Scholar | |
| DiPrete, T. A. & Buchmann, C. (2006). Gender-specific trends in the value of education and the emerging gender gap in college completion. Demography, 43(1), 1–24. Google Scholar | Crossref | Medline | ISI | |
| Gattis, K. W. (2002). Responding to self-selection bias in assessments of academic support programs: A motivational control study of supplemental instruction. The Learning Assistance Review, 7(2), 26–36. Google Scholar | |
| Geiser, S., Santelices. (2007). Validity of high school grades in predicting student success beyong the freshman year: High-school record vs. standardized tests as indicators of four-year college outcomes. Research and Occasional Paper Series. Berkeley, CA: University of California. Google Scholar | |
| Goldin, C., Katz, L. F. & Kuziemko, I. (2006). The homecoming of American college women: The reversal of the college gender gap. Cambridge, MA: National Bureau of Economic Research. Google Scholar | Crossref | |
| Gordon, E. E., Morgan, R. R. & Ponticell, J. (2006). The tutoring revolution: Applying research for best practices, policy implications, and student achievement. Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield Education. Google Scholar | |
| Greene, J. P. & Winters, M. A. (2005). Public high school graduation and college-readiness rates, 1991–2002. Education Working Papers (Vol. 8). New York, NY: Center for Civic Innovation at the Manhattan Institute. Google Scholar | |
| Grillo, M. C. & Leist, C. L. (2009). REACH tutoring services annual report, 2008–2009. Louisville, KY: University of Louisville Office of Undergraduate Affairs. Google Scholar | |
| Grillo, M. C. & Leist, C. L. (2010). REACH tutoring services annual report, 2009–2010. Louisville, KY: University of Louisville Office of Undergraduate Affairs. Google Scholar | |
| Harackiewicz, J. M., Barron, K. E., Tauer, J. M. & Elliot, A. J. (2002). Predicting success in college: A longitudinal study of achievement goals and ability measures as predictors of interest and performance from freshman year through graduation. Journal of Educational Psychology, 94(3), 562. Google Scholar | Crossref | ISI | |
| Hendriksen, S. I., Yang, L., Love, B. & Hall, M. C. (2005). Assessing academic support: The effects of tutoring on student learning outcomes. Journal of College Reading and Learning, 35(2), 10. Google Scholar | Crossref | |
| Ishitani, T. T. (2003). A longitudinal approach to assessing attrition behavior among first-generation students: Time-varying effects of pre-college characteristics. Research in Higher Education, 44(4), 433–449. Google Scholar | Crossref | ISI | |
| Keene, O. N. (1995). The log transformation is special. Statistics in Medicine, 14, 811–819. Google Scholar | Crossref | Medline | ISI | |
| Kuh, G. D. (1995). The other curriculum: Out-of-class experiences associated with student learning and personal development. The Journal of Higher Education, 66(2), 123–155. Google Scholar | Crossref | |
| Kuh, G. D. (2001). Assessing what really matters to student learning: Inside the National Survey of Student Engagement. Change, 33(3), 10–66. Google Scholar | Crossref | |
| Kuh, G. D. (2009). What student affairs professionals need to know about student engagement. Journal of College Student Development, 50(6), 683–706. Google Scholar | Crossref | ISI | |
| Lau, L. K. (2003). Institutional factors affecting student retention. Education, 124(1), 126–137. Google Scholar | |
| Lidren, D. M., Meier, S. E. & Brigham, T. A. (1991). The effects of minimal and maximal peer tutoring systems on the academic performance of college students. The Psychological Record, 41(1), 69–77. Google Scholar | Crossref | |
| Light, A. & Strayer, W. (2002). From Bakke to Hopwood: Does race affect college attendance and completion? Review of Economics and Statistics, 84(1), 34–44. Google Scholar | Crossref | |
| Lotkowski, V. A., Robbins, S. B. & Noeth, R. J. (2004). The role of academic and non-academic factors in improving college retention. ACT Policy Report (pp. 20–24). Iowa City, IA: ACT. Google Scholar | |
| Louisville, University of. (2003). Fall 2003 to Summer 2004 undergraduate catalog. General Admission to the University of Louisville. Louisville, KY: University of Louisville. Google Scholar | |
| MacKinnon, D. P. (2008). Introduction to statistical mediation analysis. London, UK: Erlbaum Psych Press. Google Scholar | |
| Martin, D. C. (1994). Supplemental instruction: Increasing achievement and retention. Hoboken, NJ: Jossey-Bass. Google Scholar | |
| Martin, D. C. & Arendale, D. R. (1993). Supplemental instruction: Improving first-year student success in high-risk courses. The freshman year experience: Monograph series (Vol. 7). Columbia, SC: South Carolina University. Google Scholar | |
| Maxwell, M. (1990). Does tutoring help? A look at the literature. Review of Research in Developmental Education, 7(4), 1–5. Google Scholar | |
| Milem, J. F. & Berger, J. B. (1997). A modified model of college student persistence: Exploring the relationship between Astin's Theory of Involvement and Tinto's Theory of Student Departure. Journal of College Student Development, 38(4), 387–400. Google Scholar | ISI | |
| Munro, B. H. (1981). Dropouts from higher education: Path analysis of a national sample. American Educational Research Journal, 18(2), 133–141. Google Scholar | SAGE Journals | ISI | |
| Navarra-Madsen, J. & Ingram, P. (2010). Mathematics tutoring and student success. Procedia-Social and Behavioral Sciences, 8, 207–212. Google Scholar | Crossref | |
| Ogden, P., Thompson, D., Russell, A. & Simons, C. (2003). Supplemental instruction: Short- and long-term impact. Journal of Developmental Education, 26(3), 2–8. Google Scholar | |
| Panos, R. J. & Astin, A. W. (1968). Attrition among college students. American Educational Research Journal, 5(1), 57–72. Google Scholar | SAGE Journals | ISI | |
| Pascarella, E. T., Cruce, T., Umbach, P. D., Wolniak, G. C., Kuh, G. D., Carini, R. M. (2006). Institutional selectivity and good practices in undergraduate education: How strong is the link? The Journal of Higher Education, 77(2), 251–285. Google Scholar | Crossref | |
| Pascarella, E. T. & Terenzini, P. T. (1991). How college affects students: Findings and insights from twenty years of research, San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass. Google Scholar | |
| Pascarella, E. T. & Terenzini, P. T. (2005). How college affects students: A third decade of research (2nd ed.). San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass. Google Scholar | |
| Peng, S. S. & Fetters, W. B. (1978). Variables involved in withdrawal during the first two years of college: Preliminary findings from the National Longitudinal Study of the High School Class of 1972. American Educational Research Journal, 15(3), 361–372. Google Scholar | SAGE Journals | ISI | |
| Perna, L. W. (1998a). The contribution of financial aid to undergraduate persistence. Journal of Student Financial Aid, 28(3), 25–40. Google Scholar | |
| Perna, L. W. (1998b). Does financial aid help students to attend higher priced colleges? Journal of Student Financial Aid, 28(1), 19–38. Google Scholar | |
| Reason, R. D. (2009). Student variables that predict retention: Recent research and new developments. Journal of Student Affairs Research and Practice, 46(3), 482–501. Google Scholar | Crossref | |
| Reinheimer, D. & McKenzie, K. (2011). The impact of tutoring on the academic success of undecided students. Journal of College Reading and Learning, 41(2), 22–36. Google Scholar | Crossref | |
| Rheinheimer, D. C., Grace-Odeleye, B., Francois, G. E. & Kusorgbor, C. (2010). Tutoring: A support strategy for at-risk students. Learning Assistance Review, 15(1), 23–34. Google Scholar | |
| Richardson, R.C. & Skinner, E. F. (1992). Helping first generation minority students achieve degrees. New Directions for Community Colleges, 1992(80), 29–43. Google Scholar | Crossref | |
| Saunders, D. (1992). Peer tutoring in higher education. Studies in Higher Education, 17(2), 211–218. Google Scholar | Crossref | |
| Seidman, A. (2005). College student retention: Formula for student success. Westport, CT: Greenwood Publishing Group. Google Scholar | |
| Shepard, L. A. (Ed.). (1989). Flunking grades: Research and policies on retention. London, UK: Taylor & Francis. Google Scholar | |
| Six year baccalaureate graduation rate 2008. Kentucky public institutions—Fall 2002 degree seeking freshman. (2008). Retrieved April 14, 2011, from http://cpe.ky.gov/NR/rdonlyres/5B5128DF-D3C8-4918-824C-F1312D26BFB7/0/Grad_Rate_2005_2008.pdf. Google Scholar | |
| Six-year graduation rates at four-year public institutions by race, gender, and residency, entering class: 2002, 2001, 2001, 1999, 1998. (2011). Retrieved April 14, 2011, from http://cpe.ky.gov/info/retention/index.htm. Google Scholar | |
| Spady, W. G. (1970). Dropouts from higher education: An interdisciplinary review and synthesis. Interchange, 1(1), 64–85. Google Scholar | Crossref | |
| Summerskill, J. (1962). Dropouts from college. In Nevitt, S. (Ed.), The American college: A psychological and social interpretation of the higher learning. Hoboken, NJ: Wiley & Sons. Google Scholar | Crossref | |
| Tierney, W. G. (1999). Models of minority college-going and retention: Cultural integrity versus cultural suicide. The Journal of Negro Education, 68(1), 80–91. Google Scholar | Crossref | |
| Tinto, V. (1975). Dropout from higher education: A theoretical synthesis of recent research. Review of Educational Research, 45(1), 89–125. Google Scholar | SAGE Journals | ISI | |
| Tinto, V. (2005). Reflections on retention and persistence: Institutional actions on behalf of student persistence. Studies in Learning, Evaluation Innovation and Development, 2(3), 89–97. Google Scholar | |
| Tinto, V. (2006). Research and practice of student retention: What next? Journal of College Student Retention: Research, Theory and Practice, 8(1), 1–19. Google Scholar | SAGE Journals | |
| Topping, K. J. (1996). The effectiveness of peer tutoring in further and higher education: A typology and review of the literature. Higher Education, 32(3), 321–345. Google Scholar | Crossref | ISI | |
| View Book. (2010). Louisville, KY: University of Louisville Office of Admissions. Google Scholar | |
| Whitt, E. J., Edison, M., Pascarella, E. T., Nora, A. & Terenzi, P. T. (1999). Interactions with peers and objective and self-reported cognitive outcomes across 3 years of college. Journal of College Student Development, 40(1), 61–78. Google Scholar | ISI |
