Historical documentation of lead toxicity prior to the 20th century in English literature
Abstract
Lead is a heavy metal that remains a persistent environmental toxin. Although there have been a substantial number of reviews published on the health effects of lead, these reviews have predominantly focused on recent publications and rarely look at older, more historical articles. Old documents on lead can provide useful insight in establishing the historical context of lead usage and its modes of toxicity. The objective of this review is to explore historical understandings and uses of lead prior to the 20th century. One hundred eighty-eight English language articles that were published before the year 1900 were included in this review. Major themes in historical documentation of lead toxicology include lead’s use in medical treatments, symptoms of lead poisoning, treatments for lead poisoning, occupational lead poisonings, and lead contamination in food and drinking water. The results of this review indicate that lead’s usage was widespread throughout the 19th century, and its toxic properties were well-known. Common symptoms of lead poisoning and suggested treatments were identified during this time period. This review provides important insight into the knowledge and uses of lead before the 20th century and can serve as a resource for researchers looking at the history of lead.
Introduction
Lead is a toxic metal that remains an occupational and environmental hazard throughout the world.1 Lead often enters the body through ingestion of lead-contaminated dust and inhalation of lead particles produced from the combustion of lead-containing materials.1 The major sources of lead exposure include leaded gasoline, piped drinking water, ceramic glazes, soldering from canned foods, lead-based paints, and traditional medicines.2 Lead accumulates throughout the body in blood, soft tissues (including the brain, renal cortex, and spleen), and bone.2 Lead’s toxic effects are cumulative and affect multiple body systems.1 Some of the impacts of high-level lead exposure include damage to nervous system function, hemoglobin synthesis, and kidney function.1,3 Low levels of lead exposure are particularly a concern for its neurotoxic effects among children.4,5 Children are particularly susceptible to the effects of lead, due to high levels of hand-to-mouth activity and higher rates of lead absorption compared to adults.2 Although health organizations like the American Centre for Disease Control and Prevention have established guidelines for safe levels of lead exposure, evidence suggests that there is no safe level of lead.1,2,4 The health effects of lead are irreversible.1
The burden of disease from lead exposure remains high, particularly for low- and middle-income countries (LMICs).1 Although lead is rarely perceived as a problem in high-income countries, the recent water contamination in Flint, Michigan, demonstrates that lead remains a topical issue in public health.6–8 Historically, work on noncommunicable diseases, including lead poisoning, have received less attention than communicable diseases. Historical accounts of lead are most often associated with chronic lead poisoning and saturnine gout in Ancient Rome, which has been controversially attributed to the fall of the Roman Empire.9 Historical literature on lead is useful for understanding past occupational and environmental routes of exposures as well as clinical symptoms, treatments, and applications of lead. The objective of this article is to explore the medical history of lead and to understand the views and perceptions of lead prior to the 20th century. Reviews on lead often focus on more recent literature and do not have a targeted focus on documents prior to the 20th century. Although some articles have been written looking at the history of lead, these articles have not extensively explored the available literature nor characterized historical understandings of lead. This review is useful for researchers looking to explore the state of knowledge on lead prior to the 20th century as well as lead’s common uses.
Methods
A narrative review was conducted to explore the historical literature on lead. Articles were identified using PubMed and through the Simon Fraser University (SFU) library database. The SFU database contains several historical databases and journals providing access to journal articles preceding the 20th century. Articles included in this narrative review were limited to English language articles preceding the 20th century. Subject terms searched were “lead toxicity,” “lead poisoning,” “occupational lead poisoning,” “lead acetate,” “red lead,” and “white lead”. Additional articles were also identified through screening the references of articles included in this review. Articles were included in the review if they had a primary focus on lead poisoning or the use of lead. There were 188 articles identified that fit the inclusion criteria and were included in this review.
Results
Lead in the ancient world (second century B.C.E. to seventh century C.E.)
Nicander (Floruit (fl.) second century B.C.E.) has been credited as writing the earliest recorded account of lead poisoning during the second century B.C.E.10 Dioscorides (circa (c.) 40 to (c.) 90 C.E.) also described a case of lead poisoning in the first century C.E.11 Pliny wrote about the dangers of red lead and lead acetate.12 Celsus (c. 25 B.C.E to c. 50 C.E.) also identified lead as a poison and proposed an antidote consisting of walnut juice combined with wine.13 Galen (130 to c. 210 C.E.) previously stated that water transported to Rome through lead pipes was not suitable for consumption.14 Galen also recommended that rain water should be used in the preparation of medicines, as opposed to water brought through lead pipes.14 Vitruvius (c. 80 to c. 15 B.C.E.) wrote about the health implications of using water collected from lead pipes.14 Aetius (c. 390 to 454 C.E.) also wrote about the dangers of collecting rain water from roofs, as roof tiles were often covered with lead.14 Both Vitruvius and Pliny (23 to 79 C.E.) identified that the fumes from lead mining were poisonous; Vitruvius goes further to state that water near mines was also found to be harmful.12,15 Pliny describes how the lining of copper pots with lead prevents the leaching of copper into food.3 Marcus Cato (234 to 149 B.C.E.) and Columella (4 to c. 70 C.E.) also promoted the use of lead and lead-lined vessels.16,17 Pliny, Marcus Cato, and Columella all endorsed the boiling down of grape syrup in lead vessels as part of wine production.12,16,17 The addition of lead as a sweetener to wine was described by Pliny.12 Pliny also described that heavy consumption of lead-sweeten wine could result in paralysis in the hands.11 Similarly, Diodorus (90 to 30 B.C.E.) described these wines as capable of leading to pain in the nerves.18 Paul of Aegina (c. 625 to c. 690 C.E.) described an epidemic of lead poisoning that occurred in Ancient Rome during the seventh century C.E.19 Herodotus (c. 484 to c. 425 B.C.E.) describes that lead was used in the bridges of Babylon, and Diodorus Siculus mentions that lead was incorporated into the Hanging Gardens of Babylon.17,20 Another ancient practice with lead commonly seen in Ancient Greece and Anatolia was a practice where molten lead was mixed with water and the forms and shapes produced would be examined to predict the future.21,22 These practices were often conducted indoors with minimal ventilation.
Occupational exposures to lead in the 18th and 19th centuries
The National Observer reported that cases of lead poisoning were occurring in white lead factories and stated that the cases were due to workers not following the proper health and safety protocols.23 White lead factories were a common source of occupational lead poisoning.24–27 Painters who worked with white lead were also susceptible to lead poisoning.28 White lead has also been used for joints in cabinets and woodwork, making it a source of poisoning among carpenters.29
Smith reported lead poisoning among a group of weavers in a cotton-mill, working with a dye that contained lead dichromate.30 Symptoms included jaundice and a blue line on the gums.30 Investigation into the poisonings led to a stronger regulation in the process of dying the yarns and the use of personal protective equipment among mill workers, ultimately ending all cases of lead poisoning.30
Hodge looked at lead exposure and the impacts of lead poisoning among workers on a pottery.31 Hodge noticed the dangers of lead exposure, particularly among workers whose job was to dip pottery into the lead glaze.31 Murphy also reported several cases of lead poisoning among pottery workers.32 Additional articles also identified lead poisoning as common among pottery workers.33–38
Working in glass staining was another occupation where lead poisoning was identified.33 Glass cutting and glass polishing are also occupational sources of lead exposure.39
An 1889 article reported a case of lead poisoning in a florist who would bite off the ends of tinfoil used to wrap bouquets of flowers.40 The tinfoil used was found to be up to 80% lead (22). Plumbers were also commonly poisoned from lead.26 Webb examined the increased instances in lead poisoning among miners in Derbyshire.41
Workers involved in producing and finishing brass have also been identified as having symptoms of lead poisoning when the process included lead.42
Ormrod identified that in rare cases, lead poisoning was identified in manufacturers of steel.43 Ormrod identified that the source of this poisoning was likely that certain ores used for steel contain higher concentrations of lead, and that lead vapors from the smelting process were the route of entry among workers.43
A suitcase maker who worked with a black glazed cloth showed symptoms of lead poisoning.44 Tests on the material ultimately identified that the cloth was the source of lead.
Lead poisoning through drinking water in the 18th and 19th centuries
In 1889, an outbreak of lead poisoning occurred in Sheffield, United Kingdom, that was ultimately attributed to the use of lead pipes and the presence of dissolved lead in drinking water.45,46 The entrance of lead into the waterways was associated with increased instances of sterility and spontaneous abortion.43 In 1890, a series of reports on the Sheffield outbreak was published in BMJ.47–50 These reports examined who in the Sheffield population was impacted by lead poisoning and suggested measures to treat the contaminated water.47–50 Chalk was ultimately added to treat the lead-contaminated waters of Sheffield.51
Another article cited a case of lead poisoning among a family in Philadelphia; the source of the lead was identified as lead pipes connected to hot water apparatus.52 An article reported that conducting water through lead pipes was a dangerous source of lead poisoning, and that lining lead pipes with tin could actually enhance its toxicity.53 Several articles cited concern about the entrance of lead within the water of pipes.54–60 Collyns reported on a family who experienced lead poisoning through their well water.61 Additional articles identified lead poisoning from drinking water.62 Kirker looked at the ability of fermentation by-products to breakdown lead in the waters of Sheffield, and that the breakdown of lead varied with the seasons.63
Lead contamination in food sources in the 18th and 19th centuries
In 1878, a confectioner was charged with coloring candies with chromate of lead.64 Contamination of confectionaries by lead was commonly found.65 A newspaper article from Toronto reported that a popular soda water being sold was actually carbonated lake water that contained dissolved lead.66 An 1879 article identified that cayenne pepper was often contaminated with red lead.67 An 1869 report cited cases of lead poisoning from flour, originating from a miller who cast lead in his millstone to repair cracks and furrows.68 Lead was reported to be used in dairies, particularly in the use of lead-lined vessels.69 Lead contamination was a problem in the distillation of rum and in wine production where it was used as a sweetener.14,59,69 Lead has been cited to easily mix with oily foods including butter and lard.59 Cider wine was particularly seen as being a source of lead poisoning as lead was commonly used as a sweetener.14,59 The washtubs that were used for making cider were also a source of lead if they contained white lead paint.70 Another case of lead poisoning was identified by a patient who drank cider directly through lead piping.71 One article explored a claim that lead acetate could be used to precipitate hops bitters in beer.72 In 1883, Hoffman repeated the classical recipes for boiling down grape syrup and was able to extract 237 mg of lead per liter of syrup.73 An 1874 article reproduced experiments claiming that aerated water contained trace amounts of lead.74 Murrell investigated tinned meats as a source of lead poisoning but was unable to find any supporting evidence.75 Norris explored cases of lead poisoning among individuals who consumed flour prepared by a miller who accidently added lead to the flour rather than alum.76 One strange case of lead poisoning occurred from a chemist who confused black pepper for a combination of stannic oxide and lead, thus poisoning his food.71 Gorham looked at the presence of lead acetate in vinegars.77
A report from 1789 highlights the use of lead in kitchen utensils and earthenware containers, which may lead to the introduction of lead into the diet.78 The author of this article also states that foods that are oily and high in fat are the best treatment for chronic lead poisoning, and that the daily use of butter and oil should be used by painters and lead workers.78 Other articles identified lead poisoning from earthenware jars due to the storage of acidic foods dissolving the glaze.79
Other sources of lead poisoning in the 18th and 19th centuries
An article from 1793 describes how many cosmetics may contain lead, as the recipes for these cosmetics often remain secret.80 An 1877 article reported that some manufacturers of silk thread soak their thread in lead acetate, leading to a heavier (and therefore more expensive) fabric that releases lead vapors.81
Symptoms of lead poisoning
In 1840, Henry Burton (1799–1849 C.E.) described the dark blue line along the gum line as a symptom of lead poisoning.82 This symptom was subsequently referred to as Burton line. Fagge explored the physiological origins of Burton line.83 Other articles have also identified Burton line as a symptom of lead poisoning.66,84,85
Saturnine gout has been identified as commonly occurring among individuals who are chronically poisoned by lead.86 Some authors have attributed lead-induced gout to the impact lead has on the kidneys.86 Lorimer analyzed 107 cases of saturnine gout to identify its distinguishing symptoms.85 Symptoms help to distinguish saturnine gout from other types of gout included albuminuria, arterial thickening, anemia, and arthritis.85 Other authors also explored the prevalence and effects of saturnine gout.87–92
One article talked about the dermal absorption of lead among painters, leading to symptoms of lead poisoning including chronic intestinal pain and constipation, known as “painter’s colic.”54 Other symptoms include joint pain and paralysis of extensor muscles of the arm.54 Lead paralysis was a common symptom of lead poisoning.93 Paralysis and neuritis were also identified as symptoms of lead poisoning.94
Through 1885, 1890, and 1891, Oliver published a series of articles describing the acute and chronic symptoms of lead poisoning.95–99 Another common symptom alongside paralysis of the limbs was temporary loss of vision.38 Fagge examined ileum tissue samples for discoloration from lead poisoning with varying success.100 Brown explored symptoms of lead poisoning in children.101 Brown recorded that the most common symptom of lead poisoning in children was anemia.98 Burton line was more difficult to identify in children compared to adults.101 Jeaffreson examined cases of lead-induced neuroretinitis.102 Wadsworth identified a case of lead poisoning where the patient suffered from optic neuritis and ophthalmoplegia; these symptoms may have been exacerbated by a concurrent case of typhoid fever.103 Mackenzie examined a case of lead-induced encephalopathy (Figure 1).104
Criminal cases of lead poisoning in the 19th century
Lead acetate has previously been used in an attempt to fatally poison an individual.105 No other articles were found that indicated lead was used for criminal poisonings.
Lead in the 19th century medical treatments
Lead styles have previously been used to treat blockages in lacrimal and nasal ducts due to their flexibility and ability to be formed into various sizes.106 Emrys-Jones warned of the use of lead styles in the treatment of lachrymal obstructions due to its potential ability to contribute to necrosis.107 One report also stated that lead acetate should not be used as an eyewash.108 Pope reports of two fatal cases of lead poisoning where the consumption of lead plaster was used to induce abortion.109
Lead acetate was commonly used in medical treatments.110,111 Lead acetate was used in the treatment of cholera.112–117 Diarrhea was also commonly treated by lead acetate.118–120 Burridge cites multiple cases of using the consumption of lead acetate as a treatment for dysentery and other diarrheal disease.121 Lead acetate has also been used to address pulmonary conditions and to treat typhoid pneumonia.122 Dysentery was also a condition commonly treated by lead acetate.112,115,116,122,123 Lead acetate has also been used to treat nosebleeds, abdominal swelling, and trachoma.124–126 Bronchitis and pneumonia have also been treated with lead acetate.127–129 Yellow fever is another condition treated by lead acetate.130 Lead acetate was also used for uterine hemorrhage.131 Another article identified the use of lead acetate to treat aortic aneurism.132 Epilepsy was also treated by lead acetate.133,134 Chorea is another condition that was treated with lead acetate.135 The impact of lead acetate on the body was recorded to vary with dose.136 One case of hydrophobia was relieved by lead acetate.137 Heavy menstrual flow was also treated by injections of lead acetate.138 Fatal poisoning by lead acetate was recorded in an individual being treated for tuberculosis.139–141 Additionally, a fatal case of peritonitis was recorded in an individual who was injected with lead acetate solution.142 Laidlaw explored safe levels of lead for uterine hemorrhage.143,144
Treatments of lead poisoning in the 19th century
As a treatment for lead colic, the inhalation of nitrate of amyl was suggested for pain relief, following successful use among several patients.145 An article from 1822 suggests that Epsom salts be consumed to induce vomiting, followed by the consumption of large amounts of water after ingesting lead.146 In 1873, three cases of lead poisoning were reported, and potassium iodide was administered three times a day to each patient.147 An 1873 article outlined several methods to treat lead, including the use of chloroform for pain relief, sulfur as a purgative, and the administration of potassium iodide.148 Additionally, the article suggested salt baths for dermal exposure to lead among lead workers.148 Baths and massages have been suggested for treating chronic lead poisoning.149 Potassium iodide has also been suggested by other authors as a treatment for lead poisoning.91,149–152 Other reports state that for acute consumption of lead salts, persulphuret of iron is the preferred treatment.56,153–156 Alternatively, sulfate of soda or sulfate of magnesia can be used.153,154 Alderson and Pearsall treated a lead worker who was suffering from paralysis of the limbs and blindness with sulfate of magnesia and laudanum as well as ipecacuanha powder, leading to a perfect cure.38 Henry Clutterbuck (1767–1856 C.E.) recommends that to treat paralysis due to lead, a mercury-based ointment be applied to the sites of paralysis.157 Clutterbuck states multiple cases where this treatment was successful in relieving paralysis.157 Fleming cited several treatments for lead poisoning, including a treatment of magnesium sulfate and sulfuric acid.39 Iodide of potassium was also cited as an acceptable treatment.39 For lead-induced paralysis, Fleming suggested a combination of scythian, iron, and phosphoric acid.39 Creosote has also been used as treatment for accidental consumption of lead.158 One article describes the ability of lead to be absorbed by the skin resulting in similar symptoms as those who have consumed the metal.159 This article recommends the use of alum to treat mild cases of lead poisoning, and for lead smelters exposed to asthma, the forced air from lime kilns are suggested.159
Lead manufacturing in the 19th century
Three articles were found that describe the process of manufacturing lead acetate.160–162 Descriptions of the manufacturing of red lead were also identified.163 A significant number of articles described various patented and unpatented methods for producing white lead.164–172 An 1896 article describes the development of a machine to improve the process of white lead grinding.173 An article from 1840 described the quality of white lead produced by Joseph Charless & Co., based in St Louis, Missouri.174 An 1869 article described a method to test the purity of white lead.175 Manufacturers of white lead had also produced tests to assess purity.176 Wagner also provided strategies for testing the quality of white lead.177 Other articles warned consumers that white lead comes in various grades containing various quantities of lead.178–180 Substitutes for white lead have also been suggested.181,182
Additional publications on lead from the 18th and 19th centuries
Kirtland (1793–1877) provided several questions regarding the nature of lead and lead poisoning that are considered practical for individuals interested in the topic of lead.183 Matteuci (1811–1868) explored the physical properties of lead acetate.184 Wormley looked at different chemical properties of lead acetate.185 An 1840 article classified the salts of lead as an irritating poison, meaning that it is a poison that leads to inflammation at the point of contact.186 Case studies of animals experiencing lead poisoning were reported by Percival in 1774. One case of dogs facing lead poisoning due to being fed in a lead-lined trough was recorded.155 Once the trough was replaced, the symptoms of lead poisoning disappeared.155 Another case of lead poisoning was identified in cats that lived in a plumber’s house. The cats were found to walk through the plumber’s workshop and pick up lead on their feet, which was then licked off and consumed.155 An 1889 article examined how lead-covered electrical cables degrade quickly when laid underground in troughs made of creosoted wood.187 The article suggests that troughs should be well ventilated to prevent degradation.187 Harrison looked at the chemical properties of white lead paint.188 In 1893, Stone identified a newly discovered area containing lead near Saric, Mexico.189 An 1859 article described a white lead factory based in Philadelphia.190 A 1793 article described a source of red lead identified in Siberia.191 An 1892 article looked at the quality of white lead in paint.192 One article described the differences between red and white lead.193 An 1894 article describes a court case between two white lead manufacturing companies regarding the quality of white lead produced by one of the companies.194 Red lead was often used as a paint to protect iron and steel products.195,196 The health effects of both red and white lead were outlined in an article from 1877.197 Red lead was also identified as an ingredient used in making artificial rubies.198 A summary of the major findings of this review organized by number of documents within each theme can be found in Figure 2.
Discussion
Historical information on lead shows a vast array of knowledge and applications of this metal. While some writers from antiquity describe lead’s use in preparing wine and in construction, at the same time, many authors were aware of its toxic effects. An epidemic of lead poisoning was also described by one author, suggesting that many individuals were well aware of the negative health effects of lead.
Occupational exposures to lead were one of the major sources of lead poisoning in the 18th and 19th centuries. Some of the occupations that saw large numbers of lead poisoning are not surprising, such as white lead manufacturing, painting, and pottery work. Other instances of lead poisoning came from occupations not usually associated with lead, including weavers, suitcase makers, and a florist. The diversity of lead poisoning cases indicates that lead was pervasive throughout this time period. While lead has been drastically reduced from the environment (especially seen by the removal of lead from gasoline), lead remains a persistent environmental pollutant that continues to have negative population health consequences.200 Occupational lead exposures remain a significant health problem today. Occupations including workers in lead manufacturing and smelting, glass manufacturing, battery manufacturing and recycling as well as car mechanics, and welders still face a significant exposure to lead.201
Lead poisoning from water sources was a major problem historically. Several accounts of the use of lead-based pipes were seen from antiquity and well into the 19th century. The reoccurring issue of lead contamination through pipes shows the importance of replacing pipes with safer materials. Lead pipes began to be phased out of use in North America in the 1930s; water consumption is thought to still contribute to 10–20% of total lead intake in children.202 The pervasiveness of the use of lead pipes for water and the negative health effects of low-level blood lead concentrations indicates that the removal of lead pipes from use should be a public health priority.
Lead poisoning from the contamination of food and alcohol was a significant issue, particularly in the 18th and 19th centuries. Food-containing vessels, particularly lead pottery that was lead-glazed, could often be a source of lead poisoning. Ciders and other alcohols could be a source of lead poisoning if the vessels used contained white lead paint, or if lead was used to illegally sweeten wines. A surprising find was that lead contamination was particularly an issue for commercially sold soda waters. As previously mentioned, water consumption remains a significant source of lead exposure.202 Lead contamination of food remains a health issue, particularly for LMICs.203–208 Foods grown in lead-contaminated water also remain a persistent source of lead, indicating the importance of soil remediation in areas with high levels of lead pollution.209 Additionally, hand-to-mouth activity remains a major route of lead exposure in children from the ingestion of lead-contaminated dust.210–212 Although the inhalation of lead particles has drastically reduced in the past decades with the removal of lead in gasoline, cars can still emit lead particles due to the presence of lead in engine parts and the quality fuels used. While the inhalation of lead particles has drastically decreased as a route of exposure, ingestion remains a significant concern.
Many early symptoms of lead poisoning were formally recognized and identified during the 19th century. Burton’s line, painter’s colic, and distinguishing saturnine gout were all found in sources during this time period. Early research in lead toxicity helped set the groundwork for future research.
Although many historical articles identified lead poisoning as toxic, its use in medical treatments was widespread. Lead, and particularly lead acetate, was often used in medical treatments. Lead was particularly used in the creation of flexible styles for duct issues. Lead acetate’s most common use was in diarrheal diseases including dysentery and cholera. Several other conditions were cited where lead acetate was used in medical treatment, suggesting that lead was used as a panacea throughout the 19th century. Due to the toxic nature of lead, its use in medicine is no longer relevant. Certain traditional medicines, including Ayurvedic medicines and some Asian folk remedies still used today have been identified as being heavily contaminated with lead.201 One unique case of lead poisoning was found in an infant whose mother used lead-based nipple guards.211 The presence of lead in traditional medicines remains a persistent health concern.
Many different treatments for lead poisoning were also suggested. The type of treatment varied depending on the route of exposure and if the lead poisoning was acute or chronic. For the accidental consumption of lead, vomiting was often induced to remove the poisoning, or creosote was used to absorb the lead. Baths were usually suggested for dermal exposure to lead. The most common treatment for lead poisoning found in the literature was potassium iodide. Currently, chelation therapy is used as a method to reduce blood lead levels and reduce symptoms of lead poisoning.213,214 Common chelators currently used to relieve lead poisoning include succimer and sodium calcium EDTA.214
Only one article was found that identified lead being used for criminal poisoning. Lead was likely not seen as a useful poison due to fatality occurring only at high doses as well as its distinctive symptoms.
Several articles also looked at the manufacturing and applications of red and white lead. Red lead was predominantly used as a protective layer for steel, while white lead was predominantly used for domestic painting.193 Due to the negative health effects of lead paint, its use has been removed in high-income countries through regulation and removal, but its use remains common in LMICs.215 Overall historical experiences with lead provide a rich source of information on its use and impacts on human health and reflect many common issues with lead currently faced by LMICs.
Limitations
There were three limitations to this review. The review was restricted to English language articles. Only including English language articles meant that the majority of articles originated from North America and Britain, reducing the overall breadth of the review. Articles were included based on their availability and access through the database used, meaning that articles lacking a full body text were not included. The review conducted was narrative, meaning that a systematic search of the literature did not occur and no specific methodology was used.
Conclusion
Significant insight can be gained from examining historical experiences with lead use and poisoning. The vast literature identified indicates that it was common knowledge that lead had toxic effects, but historically it was assumed that these effects only occurred at high levels of exposure. Lead was both an occupational hazard as identified by the numerous occupations where lead poisoning was experienced and a common environmental contaminant, as seen by the ubiquitous presence of lead in food, household items, and water carried through lead-based pipes. Lead remains an important occupational hazard in many different industries, and the contamination of food grown in polluted soils and the transport of water through lead-based pipes continues to be sources of lead poisoning. The most common route of entry for lead identified in the historical literature was through ingestion, which is in contrast to the inhalation of lead particles from leaded gasoline commonly seen in the 20th century. Although the inhalation of lead has recently decreased, vehicle emissions remain a source of lead pollution. Ingestion of lead particles remains a major source of lead poisoning that should continue to be addressed through public health initiatives. Outbreaks of lead poisoning from water carried through lead pipes were historically a major public health issue, indicating the importance of the transition away from lead pipes for the transport of water. The symptoms of lead poisoning were well documented throughout the 18th and 19th centuries, and several clinical symptoms that were characterized at this time remain important indicators of lead poisoning today. Numerous methods to treat chronic and acute lead poisoning were developed. Lead contamination of alternative medicines remains a key source of lead poisoning today. This article demonstrates that historical issues regarding lead poisoning reflect similar issues currently seen in LMICs and may provide useful information on how to mitigate this public health issue.
Declaration of Conflicting Interests
The author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.
Funding
The author(s) received no financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.
References
1. World Health Organization. Lead poisoning and health. Report, World Health Organization, 2016.
2. Papanikolaou NC, Hatzidaki EG, Belivanis S, et al. Lead toxicity update. A brief review. Med Sci Monit 2005; 11: RA329.
3. Flora G, Gupta D, Tiwari A. Toxicity of lead: a review with recent updates. Interdiscip Toxicol 2012; 5: 47–58.
4. Lanphear BP, Hornung R, Khoury J, et al. Low-level environmental lead exposure and children’s intellectual function: an international pooled analysis. Environ Health Perspect 2005; 113: 894–899.
5. Liu J, Li L, Wang Y, et al. Impact of low blood lead concentrations on IQ and school performance in Chinese children. PLoS One 2013; 8: e65230.
6. Campbell C, Greenberg R, Mankikar D, et al. A case study of environmental injustice: the failure in Flint. Int J Environ Res Public Health 2016; 13: 1–11.
7. Bellinger DC. Lead contamination in Flint—an abject failure to protect public health. N Engl J Med 2016; 374: 1101–1103.
8. Hanna-Attisha M, LaChance J, Sadler RC, et al. Elevated blood lead levels in children associated with the Flint drinking water crisis: a spatial analysis of risk and public health response. Am J Public Health 2016; 106: 283–290.
9. Nriagu JO. Saturnine gout among roman aristocrats. Did lead poisoning contribute to the fall of the Empire? N Engl J Med 1983; 308: 660–663.
10. Nicander. Alexipharmaca. Apud Vasoosanum 1549.
11. Riddle JM. Dioscorides on Pharmacy and Medicine, 1st ed. Austin: University of Texas Press, 1985.
12. Pliny the Elder. Natural historiae. England, 1669.
13. Celsus AC. De Medicina, Special ed. New York: Classics of Medicine Library, 1989.
14. Having in our last magazine extracted some of the observations of Dr. Baker, on the poison of lead, the cause of the colic and palsy, hitherto attributed to the drinking of cider; we here beg leave, of the same author, to insert an extract from his examination of the several means, by which the poison of lead may be supposed frequently to gain admittance into the human body, unobserved, and unsuspected. Universal Magazine of Knowledge and Pleasure, 1768; 43: 264–269.
15. Pollio V, Krohn F. Vitruvii De Architectura Libri Decem. in aedibus B.G. Teubneri, 1912.
16. Cato MP, Varro MT, Vettori P. Libri de re rustica, ad ueterum exemplarium fidem, suæ integritati restituti. Ex officina Roberti Stephani, 1543.
17. Columella L. De re rustica. Bologna: Benedictus Hectoris, 1504.
18. Diodorus S, Murphy E. The antiquities of Asia: A translation with notes of book II of the Library of History, of Diodorus Siculus. New Brunswick: Transaction Publishers, 1989.
19. Paulus A, Adams F, William C. The seven books of Paulus AEgineta: translated from the Greek: with a commentary embracing a complete view of the knowledge possessed by the Greeks, Romans, and Arabians on all subjects connected with medicine and surgery. London: Sydenham Society, 1844.
20. Herodotus, De Sélincourt A. Herodotus: the histories. Baltimore: Penguin Books, 1954.
21. Potter J. Archaeologia graeca: or the antiquities of Greece. In two volumes. London: J. Mundell & Co. Edinburgh; and the other proprietors, 1795.
22. Schele de Vere M. Modern Magic. New York: Putnam, 1873.
23. White lead poisoning. The National Observer 1893; 10: 59–60.
24. Ramskill JS. Remarks on lead-poisoning in lead-makers: with particulars showing the operations by which the poison is introduced into the system, and the symptomatic disturbance resulting therefrom, in twenty-five cases. BMJ 1875; 1: 599–600.
25. Holder W. Diseases affecting lead-workers. BMJ 1876; 2: 490–491.
26. Hollis WA. Muscular tremors, in their relation to lead-poisoning. BMJ 1872; 2: 651–652.
27. White-lead workers. BMJ 1883; 1: 677–678.
28. White-lead poisoning. BMJ 1886; 2: 729–729.
29. Wiltshire A. Another source of lead-poisoning. BMJ 1870; 2: 701–704.
30. Smith RC. Poisoning by chromate of lead in weavers. BMJ 1882; 1: 8.
31. Hodge H. Lead-poisoning. A day in the potteries. Saturday Review of Politics, Literature, Science and Art 1898; 86: 200.
32. Murphy SF. Public health: epidemic of pneumonia, lead poisoning in potters, disinfection by steam, arsenic, typhus fever in Eastern Germany, and necessary precautions, inspection of meat, “ticketed houses” of Glasgow, Scotland. The influence of removal of the uterus and its appendages on the sexual appetite, vicarious menstruation. Am J Med Sci 1889; 97: 431.
33. Napheys D. Hospital reports: clinic of J. M. Da Costa, M.D. series of cases of lead-poisoning. Med Surg Rep 1867; 17: 51.
34. Parkes K. Lead-poisoning in the potteries. New Century Rev 1898; 3: 311–315.
35. Peirson AL. On some of the effects of the poison of lead: thorax abdomen remarks. N Engl J Med Surg Collat Branch Sci 1825; 14: 35.
36. Lead poisoning in the potteries. BMJ 1899; 1: 871–872.
37. Lead poisoning in the potteries. BMJ 1898; 2: 245–246.
38. Alderson J, Pearsall TJ. Notices of the effects of lead upon the system. Med Chir Trans 1839; 22: 82–94.
39. Fleming A. Clinical lecture concerning lead-poisoning and its treatment. BMJ 1865; 1: 27–30.
40. Lead-poisoning. Science 1889; 13: 319.
41. Webb W. The lead-miners of Derbyshire: and their diseases. BMJ 1857; 1: 687–688.
42. Hollis WA. Brass a source of lead-poisoning? BMJ 1872; 1: 154–155.
43. Ormrod F. Chronic lead poisoning occurring in the manufacture of steel. BMJ 1893; 1: 1264.
44. Johnson G. A new source of lead-poisoning. BMJ 1870; 2: 325.
45. Swann A. On lead-poisoning from service pipes, in relation to sterility and abortion. BMJ 1889; 1: 352.
46. White S. A discussion on the contamination of drinking-water by lead. BMJ 1889; 2: 459–462.
47. Report on lead poisoning from drinking water in Yorkshire. BMJ 1890; 1: 1029–1036.
48. Report on lead poisoning from drinking water in Yorkshire. BMJ 1890; 1: 974–980.
49. Report on lead poisoning from drinking water in Yorkshire. BMJ 1890; 1: 1155–1161.
50. Report on lead poisoning from drinking water in Yorkshire. BMJ 1890; 1: 1097–1102.
51. A discussion on lead poisoning from drinking water. BMJ 1890; 2: 496–498.
52. Leffmann H. Report on hygiene: lead-poisoning from warm-water pipes. Philadelphia Medical Times 1885; 15: 457.
53. Lead poison. Harper’s Bazaar 1887; 20: 580.
54. Poison by lead pipes. Sci Am 1861; 5: 74.
55. IV: Mode in which the poison of lead is conveyed into the system. Boston Med Surg J 1830; 3: 160.
56. Lead poison. West J Med Surg 1849; 4: 458.
57. Companion Ft Lead-poison. The Youth’s Companion 1882; 55: 304.
58. Lead in public water supplies. BMJ 1894; 1: 1372.
59. Society for Bettering the Condition and Increasing the Comforts of the P. Medical Cautions Recommended by the Physicians and Surgeons of the Bath Hospital, to those who have received benefit by the use of the Bath waters: in cases where the poison of lead is concerned. England, 1813.
60. Tanquerel des Planches L, Lead Diseases. Boston: Thurston, Torry and Co., 1848.
61. Collyns W. On paralysis from lead in water used for drink. Prov Med Surg J 1841; 3: 8.
62. Gregory G, Oke WV. Paralysis from lead: in water used for drink. Prov Med Surg J 1841; 2: 493–494.
63. Kirker G. The action of potable waters on lead. BMJ 1890; 1: 71–72.
64. Lead poison. The Youth’s Companion 1878; 51: 101.
65. O’Shaughnessy WB. Poisoned confectionary: detection of gamboge, lead, copper, mercury, and chromate of lead, in various articles of sugar confectionary. London: Mills, Jowett, and Mills, 1831.
66. Lead in soda: how Torontoniaus are being slowly poisoned the blue line round the gums how the poison is produced slow poisoning by leaden compounds a humiliating contrast. The Globe, 1883, p. 6.
67. What people eat: cheerful revelations before the American social science association in Boston. The Independent Devoted to the Consideration of Politics, Social and Economic Tendencies, History, Literature, and the Arts 1879; 31: 28.
68. Lead poison in flour. Colman’s Rural World 1869; 23: 242.
69. On the nature and detection of different metallic poisons. By Mr. Charles Sylvester, of Derby: [From Nicholson’s Journal, No. 154.] I. Arsenic. II. Corrosive sublimate. III. Lead. IV. Copper. Eclectic Repertory and Analytical Review, Medical and Philosophical 1814; 4: 449.
70. Shipman. On slow poisoning with lead. Prov Med J Retrosp Med Sci 1843; 7: 18–19.
71. Simon RM. Two unusual cases of lead poisoning. BMJ 1896; 1: 1443.
72. Johnstone W. Does neutral or sub-acetate of lead precipitate hopbitters? Analyst 1888; 13: 6.
73. Hofmann KB. Die Getranke der griechen und romer vom hygienische stand-punkte. Arch Gesch Med 1883; 6: 26–40.
74. Attfield J. Report on the supposed presence of lead in aerated water from syphon-bottles. BMJ 1874; 1: 740.
75. Murrell W. Report on a preliminary investigation of some tinned extracts of meat for the presence of lead. BMJ 1896; 1: 858–859.
76. Norris W. Cases of poisoning by the acetate of lead, with remarks. Prov Med Surg J 1849; 13: 343–345.
77. Gorham J. Examination of some distilled vinegar, containing acetate of lead. N Engl J Med Surg Collat Branch Sci 1814; 3: 255.
78. Cautionary observations on the poison of lead. The Columbian Magazine 1789: 706.
79. Fothergill A. Extract from cautions on the poison of lead. The Weekly Entertainer: or, Agreeable and Instructive Repository 1791; 17: 409–411.
80. Remarks on cosmetics. Walker’s Hibernian Magazine, or Compendium of Entertaining Knowledge 1793: 229–230.
81. Lead poison in sewing silk. Sci Am 1877; 36: 57.
82. Burton H. On a remarkable effect on the human gums, produced by the absorption of lead. Med Chir Trans 1840; 23: 63–79.
83. Fagge CH. On the nature and mode of origin of the lead line in the gums. Med Chir Trans 1876; 59: 327–334; 321.
84. Gregory GF, Oke WV, Sweeting W, et al. Paralysis from lead: in water used for drink; on diacetate of lead in internal haemorrhage; on a remarkable effect on the human gums, produced by the absorption of lead; notices of the effects of lead upon the system. 0329.
85. Lorimer G. Saturnine gout, and its distinguishing marks. BMJ 1886; 2: 163.
86. Luff AP. Gout: Its pathology and treatment: founded on the Goulstonian Lectures on “The chemistry and pathology of gout” delivered by the author before the Royal College of Physicians of London in 1897: with the addition of some recent investigations concerning the treatment of gout, and a detailed account of the treatment of the various forms of gout. New York: WM Wood & Co., 1899.
87. Duckworth DS. A treatise on gout. Philadelphia: Blakiston, Son and Co., 1889.
88. Ewart W. Gout and goutiness and their treatment. New York: Wood, 1898.
89. Uratosis. Med Surg Rep 1891; 64: 361.
90. Society proceedings: Philadelphia County Medical Society. Medical News 1897; 70: 94.
91. Gleanings from our exchanges. Phila Med Times 1875; 5: 316.
92. Analytical and Bibliographical Notices. Philadelphia: American Periodicals Series II, 1870, p. 191.
93. Moritz S. A contribution to the pathological anatomy of lead-paralysis. J Anat Physiol 1880; 15: 78–87.
94. Gowers WR. A manual of diseases of the nervous system. London: Churchill, 1892.
95. Oliver T. A clinical lecture on lead-poisoning. BMJ 1885; 2: 731–735.
96. Oliver T. An analytical and clinical examination of lead-poisoning in its acute manifestations. Med Chir Trans 1890; 73: 33–53.
97. Oliver T. Goulstonian lectures on lead poisoning in its acute and chronic manifestations. BMJ 1891; 1: 688–691.
98. Oliver T. Goulstonian lectures on lead poisoning in its acute and chronic manifestations. BMJ 1891; 1: 627–634.
99. Oliver T. Goulstonian lectures on lead poisoning in its acute and chronic manifestations. BMJ 1891; 1: 571–573.
100. Fagge CH. On a probable cause of lead colic. Med Chir Trans 1881; 64: 219–224.
101. Brown J. Unsuspected lead poisoning in children. BMJ 1890; 1: 177.
102. Jeaffreson CS. A note on so-called lead-neuritis. BMJ 1886; 1: 390–391.
103. Wadsworth OF. Double optic neuritis and ophthalmoplegia from lead poisoning; complicated by typhoid fever. Trans Am Ophthalmol Soc 1885; 4: 50–54.
104. Mackenzie S. Remarks made at the bedside of a patient suffering from lead encephalopathy. BMJ 1893; 2: 1202–1204.
105. Sweeting W. On acetate of lead. Prov Med Surg J 1851; 15: 320–322.
106. Green J. On the use of styles of lead in the treatment of disease of the lachrymal sac. Trans Am Ophthalmol Soc 1868; 1: 31–34.
107. Emrys-Jones A. The dangers of lead-styles in the treatment of lacrymal obstruction. BMJ 1884; 2: 652.
108. Ross WS. Why acetate of lead should not be used as a collyrium. Med Surg Rep 1878; 39: 464.
109. Pope FM. Two cases of poisoning by the self-administration of “diachylon”-lead plaster-for the purpose of procuring abortion. BMJ 1893; 2: 9–10.
110. Ewell T. Account of the internal exhibition of the acetate of lead in several diseases. The Medical Repository of Original Essays and Intelligence, Relative to Physic, Surgery, Chemistry, and Natural History 1808; 5: 249.
111. ART. XI.—Observations on the use of large doses of the acetate of lead in some of the diseases of Alabama and Georgia. In a letter to Dr. Drake, from A. Kimbal, M. D., of Macon County, Alabama. West J Med Surg 1840; 218.
112. Mitchell TD. Article VII.—Practical hints on the use of the acetate of lead, in dysentery, cholera infantum, &c. North Am Med Surg J 1826; 1: 70.
113. Acetate of lead in cholera morbus, or humid mortification. Boston: American Periodicals Series II, 1832, p. 51.
114. Grimke TS. Acetate of lead in cholera: note on the efficacy of the acetate of lead of in several cases of Epidemic Cholera, in Cincinnati, October, 1834. West J Med Phys Sci 1834; 2: 402.
115. Price AB. Acetate of lead in cholera and dysentery. Boston Med Surg J 1836; 15: 1.
116. Harlan R. Dr. Harlan on acetate of lead in dysentery and malignant cholera. 1838; 1: 12.
117. Donovan M. On the method of exhibiting opium and acetate of lead in cholera. Am J Pharm 1855; 172.
118. Joynes LS. Case of Colica Pictonum, from the medical employment of acetate of lead. With remarks. West J Med Surg 1852; 9: 341.
119. Ames LL. Acetate of lead in the treatment of diarrhoea. Med Surg Rep 1888; 59: 363.
120. Times M. Selections from American and foreign journals: on the acetate of lead in alvine discharges. West J Med Surg 1846; 5: 344.
121. Burridge R. On the acetate of lead. Prov Med Surg J 1851; 15: 347.
122. Price AB. ART. II.—acetate of lead in cholera and dysentery: observations on the use of sugar of lead in the treatment of cholera and dysentery. West J Med Phys Sci 1836; 4: 19.
123. Hatheway OP. ART. IV.—on the treatment of dysentery with acetate of lead and Balsam of Copaiba. NY J Med Collat Sci 1853; 11: 54.
124. Agnew DH. Acetate of lead in epistaxis. Medical Examiner and Record of Medical Science 1851; 14: 765.
125. Acetate of lead in tympanites. Am J Med Sci 1848; 15: 535.
126. Treatment of granular lids by acetate of lead. Med Surg Rep 1877; 36: 468.
127. Henderson W. ART. III.—acetate of lead in bronchitis. The American Medical Intelligencer A Concentrated Record of Medical Science and Literature 1840; 4: 106.
128. Acetate of lead for pneumonia. Am J Med Sci 1861; 1: 265.
129. Treatment of pneumonia by acetate of lead. Am J Med Sci 1872; 64: 262–263.
130. Wood GB. Acetate of lead in yellow fever. Am J Med Sci 1856; 64: 560–561.
131. Mitchell GE. An account of the efficacy of the acetate of lead in uterine hemorrhage. The Philadelphia Medical Museum 1806; 2: 417.
132. Dusol MM. Successful treatment of aortic aneurism by acetate of lead. Am J Med Sci 1840; 27: 212.
133. Agnew D. On the use of the acetate of lead in epilepsy. The Medical Repository of Original Essays and Intelligence, Relative to Physic, Surgery, Chemistry, and Natural History 1805; 3: 34.
134. Jameson HG. Case of epilepsy relieved by acetate of lead; and of a diseased eye: a case of epilepsy, which was considerably checked by the use of acetate of lead case of diseased human eye, in which a hard substance was got. The Philadelphia Medical Museum 1807; 3: 63.
135. Efficacy of the acetate of lead in hysteria and chorea: communicated in a letter from Dr. Aaron C. Willey, of Block-Island, to Dr. Miller: case of hysteria. Case of chorea. The Medical Repository of Original Essays and Intelligence, Relative to Physic, Surgery, Chemistry, and Natural History 1806; 3: 266.
136. Acetate of lead. Boston Med Surg J 1829; 2: 299.
137. Cases: ART. IX. Case of hydrophobia relieved by the use of acetate of lead. Phila J Med Phys Sci 1826; 3: 118.
138. A case of tetanus, communicated to Dr. Miller by Richard Hazeltine, M. D. of Berwick, in Maine: on the internal use of the acetate of lead by the same. The Medical Repository of Original Essays and Intelligence, Relative to Physic, Surgery, Chemistry, and Natural History 1809; 6: 252.
139. Agnew DS. A case of Phthisis Pulmonalis successfully treated by the acetate of lead and digitalis. The Philadelphia Medical Museum 1809; 6: 270.
140. Bicking DR. ART. XXVIII.—fatal effects from acetate of lead given in large amount for Phthisis Pulmonalis. Am J Pharm 1840; 6: 164.
141. Selections: revue medicale. Acetate of lead in Phthisis. By M. Fouquier, Professor, &c. New Engl J Med Surg Collat Branch Sci 1822; 11: 76.
142. Fatal peritonitis resulting from an injection into the vagina of a solution of acetate of lead. Am J Med Sci 1880; 80: 577–578.
143. Laidlaw W. II: Remarks on the internal exhibition of the acetate of lead, chiefly with the view of determining to what extent it may be safely administered in the cure of diseases, especially in uterine haemorrhages. Boston Med Surg J 1828; 1: 147.
144. Laidlaw W. Further remarks on the internal exhibition of the acetate of lead, chiefly with the view of determining to what extent it may be safely administered in the cure of diseases, especially in uterine haemorrhage. Mon J Foreign Med 1828; 1: 527.
145. Boyland H. Extracts from “Deutsches Archiv fur klinische Medicin.”: Jaborandi. Capillary Hemorrhage in Phthisis. Nitrate of amyl in lead poison. Salicylic acid in intermittent fever. Med Surg Rep 1876; 34: 165.
146. Toxicological synopsis: lead irritating poisons. The Medical Repository of Original Essays and Intelligence, Relative to Physic, Surgery, Chemistry, and Natural History 1822; 7: 142.
147. Cases of lead-poison treated by the continued current. Med Surg Rep 1873; 28: 113.
148. Lead poisoning and its treatment. Sci Am 1873; 29: 97.
149. Mann JD. On the elimination of lead in chronic lead poisoning. BMJ 1893; 1: 401–404.
150. Poison of lead and of mercury. Christ Advocate J 1852; 27: 8.
151. Vanderbeck CC. Collection of prescriptions for diseases of the nervous system: sciatica (From Lead Poison). Med Surg Rep 1877; 36: 80.
152. Thompson H. Clinical lecture on a case of lead-poisoning, treated with iodide of potassium. BMJ 1871; 1: 362–363.
153. Bouchardat. Poisons and counter-poisons therapeutically considered: poisoning from the salts of lead. Medical Examiner and Record of Medical Science 1847; 10: 561.
154. Lead-Poisoning. Science 1890; 16: 51.
155. Percival T. Observations and experiments on the poison of lead. London: R. Baldwin, 1774, pp. 116–121.
156. Poison of lead. Gene Farm Gard J 1838; 8: 298.
157. Clutterbuck H. An account of a new and successful method of treating those affections which arise from the poison of lead; to which are added general observations on the internal use of lead as a medicine. By Henry Clutterbuck. London: T, Boosey, 1794.
158. Gorringe WJ. Case of poisoning by acetate of lead. Prov Med Surg J 1846; 10: 181–182.
159. ART. XIV. Observations and experiments on the poison of lead. London: Hurst, Robinson, and Co, 1775, pp. 163–164.
160. Bell J. On the manufacture of acetate of lead, and acetic acid. Am J Pharm 1851; 14: 258.
161. The manufacture of acetate of lead and its injurious influences upon the workingmen connected with it. Med Surg Rep 1886; 54: 308.
162. To manufacture acetates of lead. Sci Am 1856; 11: 168.
163. RED lead: red lead. Memoir on the refining of lead; with some reflections on the inconvenience of ash cupells; and the description of a new and economical method of constructing cupells or refining vessels: read in the French national. New method of constructing basons for refining. Emporium Arts Sci 1814; 3: 236.
164. Method of making white lead: To detect lead when dissolved in wine. The Columbian Magazine 1788; 2: 745.
165. White lead. The Weekly Entertainer: or, Agreeable and Instructive Repository 1813; 53: 597.
166. White lead. The American Repertory of Arts, Sciences, and Manufactures 1841; 3: 362.
167. Making white lead. Prairie Farmer 1846; 6: 50.
168. White lead. Literary gazette: A Weekly Journal of Literature, Science, and the Fine Arts 1848; 295.
169. White lead and oil manufactory. Valley Farmer 1851; 3: 396.
170. White lead factories. The Catholic Telegraph 1844; 13: 149.
171. Booth J. On white lead. J Frankl Inst State PA 1842; 3: 30.
172. Pulsifer WH. Notes for a history of lead: and an inquiry into the development of the manufacture of white lead and lead oxides. New York: D. Van Nostrand, 1888.
173. Improved white lead grinding machines. Sci Am 1896; 75: 376.
174. White lead of Missouri. The Merchants’ Magazine and Commercial Review 1840; 3: 240.
175. Testing white lead. Ohio Farmer 1869; 18: 630.
176. A white lead test. Sci Am 1890; LXII: 153.
177. Wagner R. Adulteration of white lead. Am J Pharm 1873; 271.
178. White lead. Ohio Farmer 1870; 19: 486.
179. A word on white lead. Am Arch Build News 1893; 41: 3.
180. White-lead. Am Arch Build News 1899; 64: 1.
181. Substitute for white lead. The Workshop 1872; 400.
182. Laurie AP. White-lead substitutes. J Soc Arts 1893; 42: 133.
183. Kirtland JP. Poison of lead. Ohio Farmer 1857; 6: 18.
184. Matteuci C. Article XLIX.—phenomena presented by acetate of lead, when exposed to the action of heat, and the products thus obtained. J Phila College Pharm 1832; 3: 308.
185. Wormley TG. Toxicology: notes on some of the chemical reactions of oxalic acid. 5. Acetate of Lead. Ohio Med Surg J 1862; 14: 390.
186. Medical science: poisons.—Lead. The Family Magazine; or, Monthly Abstract of General Knowledge 1840; 7: 108.
187. Lead-covered cables. Science 1889; 14: 263.
188. Harrison BC. The chemistry of paints, or, a partial description of the Harrison white lead, color and chemical works with a practical treatise on painting. 1890.
189. Kempton CW. Native lead. Science 1893; 21: 345.
190. White lead in Philadelphia. Sci Am 1859; 1: 315.
191. ART. XVI. Du Plomb rouge de Siberie. Of the red lead of Siberia: by M. Macquart. London: J. Johnson, 1789, p. 378.
192. Something about white lead. Sci Am 1892; LXVI: 18.
193. Red and white lead. 1894; 44(962).
194. White lead: judge. Smith’s decision. Am Arch Build News 1894; 45: 2.
195. Red lead for protecting iron. Sci Am 1863; IX: 48.
196. Woodruff J. The preservation of iron and steel structural work. Am Arch Build News 1891; 33: 13.
197. Mineral pigments, and their relation: to health. New York Times 6 24, 1877, p. 4.
198. Making precious stones: alumina and red lead the principal ingredients of the ruby. Maine Farmer 1895; 63: 2.
199. Peters MD, Godfrey CM, Khalil H, et al. Guidance for conducting systematic scoping reviews. Int J Evid Based Healthc 2015; 13: 141–146.
200. Wani AL, Ara A, Usmani JA. Lead toxicity: a review. Int Toxicol 2015; 8: 55–64.
201. Hernberg S. Lead poisoning in a historical perspective. Am J Ind Med 2000; 38: 244–254.
202. Rabin R. The lead industry and lead pipes: “a modest proposal”. Am J Public Health 2008; 98: 1584–1592.
203. Othman ZAA. Lead contamination in selected foods from Riyadh city market and estimation of the daily intake. Molecules 2010; 15: 7482–7497.
204. Das A, Krishna K, Kumar R, et al. Tracing lead contamination in foods in the city of Kolkata, India. Environ Sci Pollut Res 2016; 23: 22454–22466.
205. Freeman NC, Sheldon L, Jimenez M, et al. Contribution of children’s activities to lead contamination of food. J Exp Anal Environ Epidemiol 2001; 11: 407–413.
206. Winiarska-Mieczan A, Kiczorowska B. Determining the content of lead and cadmium in infant food from the Polish market. Int J Food Sci Nutr 2012; 63: 708–712.
207. Boisson F, Cotret O, Teyssié JL, et al. Relative importance of dissolved and food pathways for lead contamination in shrimp. Mar Pollut Bull 2003; 46: 1549–1557.
208. Nedelescu M, Baconi D, Neagoe A, et al. Environmental metal contamination and health impact assessment in two industrial regions of Romania. Sci Total Environ 2017; 580: 984–995
209. McLaughlin MJ, Parker DR, Clarke JM. Metals and micronutrients – food safety issues. Field Crops Res 1999; 60: 143–163.
210. Health Canada. Risk management strategy for lead, Report, Government of Canada, 2013.
211. Kokori H, Giannakopoulou C, Paspalaki P, et al. An anaemic infant in a coma. Lancet 1998; 352: 284–284.
212. Palad F, Bartlett K, Reza A. Is play-dough a vector for transporting and accumulating lead? A pilot study of daycares in greater Vancouver. Asia Pacific J Med Toxicol 2016; 5: 72–74.
213. Dietrich KN, Ware JH, Salganik M, et al. Effect of chelation therapy on the neuropsychological and behavioral development of lead-exposed children after school entry. Pediatrics 2004; 114: 19–26.
214. Volans G, Karalliedde L, Wiseman H. Review of succimer for treatment of lead poisoning. 2010.
215. Attina TM, Trasande L. Economic costs of childhood lead exposure in low- and middle-income countries. Environ Health Perspect 2013; 121: 1097–1102.
Cite article
Cite article
Cite article
OR
Download to reference manager
If you have citation software installed, you can download article citation data to the citation manager of your choice
Information, rights and permissions
Information
Published In
Article first published online: October 27, 2017
Issue published: August 2018
Keywords
PubMed: 29076389
Authors
Metrics and citations
Metrics
Journals metrics
This article was published in Human & Experimental Toxicology.
View All Journal MetricsArticle usage*
Total views and downloads: 8082
*Article usage tracking started in December 2016
Articles citing this one
Receive email alerts when this article is cited
Web of Science: 14 view articles Opens in new tab
Crossref: 24
- Lead (Pb) load interacts with oxidative stress in Drosophila melanogaster through MTF-1/Nrf2/JNK mediated metallothionein expression
- Lead Causes Lipid Droplet Accumulation by Impairing Lysosomal Function and Autophagic Flux in Testicular Sertoli Cells
- High lead-tolerant mutant Bacillus tropicus AT31-1 from rhizosphere soil of Pu-erh and its remediation mechanism
- High Lead Levels in 2 Independent and Authenticated Locks of Beethoven’s Hair
- Mobile guardians: Detection of food fraud with portable spectroscopy methods for enhanced food authenticity assurance
- Aqueous soluble zinc selenide quantum dots for rapid detection of lead in water, fruit juices and biological fluids
- In silico prediction aided preparation of antioxidant soybean peptides by enzymatic hydrolysis for ameliorating lead exposure-induced toxicity
- Encyclopedia of Toxicology
- Comparison of Blood Lead Levels in Children and Adolescents with and Without Functional Abdominal Pain
- Issues Concerning Manufacture and Recycling of Lead
- View More
Figures and tables
Figures & Media
Tables
View Options
View options
PDF/EPUB
View PDF/EPUBAccess options
If you have access to journal content via a personal subscription, university, library, employer or society, select from the options below:
I am signed in as:
View my profileSign out
I can access personal subscriptions, purchases, paired institutional access and free tools such as favourite journals, email alerts and saved searches.
loading institutional access options
Alternatively, view purchase options below:
Purchase 24 hour online access to view and download content.
Access journal content via a DeepDyve subscription or find out more about this option.
