Cognitive-Affective Inconsistency and Ambivalence: Impact on the Overall Attitude–Behavior Relationship

This research explored whether overall attitude is a stronger predictor of behavior when underlying cognitive-affective inconsistency or ambivalence is low versus high. Across three prospective studies in different behaviors and populations (Study 1: eating a low-fat diet, N = 136 adults, eating five fruit and vegetables per day, N = 135 adults; Study 2: smoking initiation, N = 4,933 adolescents; and Study 3: physical activity, N = 909 adults) we tested cognitive-affective inconsistency and ambivalence individually and simultaneously as moderators of the overall attitude–behavior relationship. Across studies, more similar effects were observed for inconsistency compared with ambivalence (in both individual and simultaneous analyses). Meta-analysis across studies supported this conclusion with both cognitive-affective inconsistency and ambivalence being significant moderators when considered on their own, but only inconsistency being significant when tested simultaneously. The reported studies highlight the importance of cognitive-affective inconsistency as a determinant of the strength of overall attitude.

 I have never smoked  I have only ever tried smoking once  I used to smoke sometimes, but I never smoke cigarettes now  I sometimes smoke cigarettes now, but I don't smoke as many as one a week  I usually smoke between one and six cigarettes a week  I usually smoke more than six cigarettes a week University of Leeds -Confidential smoking questionnaire Page 3 6. How many of your friends smoke?

All of them
Most but not all Half and half Only a few None of them 5. ONLY answer this question if you have never smoked or only tried it once.
a) Put a tick beside the statement that best describes you:  I have never had one puff of a cigarette  I did once have a puff of a cigarette  I have tried smoking a few times, but I never smoke now  I do sometimes smoke cigarettes, but not as many as one a week b) How many times have you been offered a cigarette?
Please answer in this boxc) How many times did you smoke the cigarette?
Please answer in this boxd) What did you usually do or say when offered a cigarette? 12. An e-cigarette or vapouriser is a tube that sometimes looks like a normal cigarette and has a glowing tip. They all puff a vapour that looks like smoke but unlike normal cigarettes, they don't burn tobacco.
Have you ever heard of e-cigarettes or vapourisers? (Please tick one box) These questions ask about your experience of e-cigarettes and/or vapourisers Study 3: T1 and T2 questionnaires presented online.

Description of Study on Prolific Academic Website
Physical Activity Study -Two part This is a two part study that will ask you to answer some questions about physical activity over the next month.
The first part of the study will take approximately 8 minutes to complete.
After one month, you will be invited via email to take part in the second part of the study. This second questionnaire will take approximately 5 minutes to complete. Unpublished Please only complete the first survey if you are happy to also complete the second survey. Both parts combined will give you a total of £2.50 after completion.
The study has been approved by the University of Leeds, School of Psychology Ethics Committee (Ref: XXX, Date XXX).

Participant Information Sheet and Consent Form (Each Questionnaire)
You are being invited to take part in the 'Behaviour Study' conducted by researchers at the University of Leeds. This is a two part study and in this study, we are particularly interested in investigating the factors that influence your participation in physical activity over the next month.
The first session of this study will take approximately 8 minutes to complete. First you will be asked to provide some basic demographic details (e.g., age, gender, education, employment status), followed by some questions on your thoughts towards performing physical activity over the next month and some more general questions about your thoughts and feelings.
One month after you complete the first questionnaire, you will be emailed via Prolific Academic to invite you to complete another short questionnaire which will take approximately 5 minutes to complete.
All your information will be kept confidential, and we will never ask you to provide you with personal information such as name or email address. We will not be able to see this personal information on the Prolific Academic website either.
Please make sure that you fill in your Prolific Academic ID correctly, as we will use this to invite you to participate in the second part of the study, and will also use it to ensure that you receive the payment for your participation.
Although we would really appreciate it if you would complete both parts of the study, you are free to withdraw from the study at any time by not completing either questionnaire.
Once you have completed the second questionnaire, you will be debriefed about the aims of the study.
If you have any questions at any time, feel free to contact the research team (insert study email address) or the Principal Investigator Professor Mark Conner (m.t.conner@leeds.ac.uk).
It is your decision whether you want to take part in the study, by clicking continue at the bottom of this page, you are indicating your consent to take part. However, you will still be free to withdraw at any time without giving a reason. All the data collected from you during the experiment will be kept completely confidential, and you will not be able to be identified in any reports or publications of the findings.

Consent Declaration
I confirm that I have read and understand the information sheet explaining the above research project and I have had the opportunity to contact the researchers about the project if I have any questions.
 I agree I understand that I remain free to withdraw from the study at any time without giving a reason and without there being any negative consequences.
 I agree I understand that once my responses to either questionnaire are submitted, my responses will be anonymised and my data cannot be withdrawn.
 I agree I agree for the data collected from me to be used in further research.
 I agree I understand that I will not be able to be identified by any reports or publications as all data is anonymous and I will be identified only by a code.

Debrief Sheet
Thank you for taking part in the behaviour study. This debrief sheet will provide you with more information about the aims of the research.
In this study, we tested: 1) Whether different patterns of attitudes were most strongly related to engagement with physical activity over a one month period.
2) Whether thoughts or feelings were more or less important in driving physical activity in those with different views (e.g., had consistent or mixed attitudes to physical activity).
The following website provides details of key health behaviours and their links to health outcomes: . I plan to engage in the recommended levels of physical activity each week over the next month (1 Strongly disagree -7 Strongly agree).
12. I intend to engage in the recommended levels of physical activity each week over the next month (1 Strongly disagree -7 Strongly agree) 13. I will make an effort to engage in the recommended levels of physical activity each week over the next month (1 Strongly disagree -7 Strongly agree).
14. I will definitely try to engage in the recommended levels of physical activity each week over the next month (1 Strongly disagree -7 Strongly agree).
15. I am going to engage in the recommended levels of physical activity each week over the next month (1 Strongly disagree -7 Strongly agree). 27. I desire to engage in the recommended levels of physical activity each week over the next month (1 Strongly disagree -7 Strongly agree).

In relation to my
28. Engaging in the recommended levels of physical activity each week over the next month is something I really do not want to do (1 Strongly disagree -7 Strongly agree).
29. I feel I should engage in the recommended levels of physical activity each week over the next month (1 Strongly disagree -7 Strongly agree). 36. Engaging in the recommended levels of physical activity each week over the next month is not a high priority for me (1 Strongly disagree -7 Strongly agree).
37. When I think of things I want to achieve, engaging in the recommended levels of physical activity each week over the next month is near the top of my list (1 Strongly disagree -7 Strongly agree).
38. If I did not engage in the recommended levels of physical activity each week over the next month I would regret it (1 Strongly disagree -5 Strongly agree).
39. If I did not engage in the recommended levels of physical activity each week over the next month I would feel guilty (1 Strongly disagree -5 Strongly agree).
40. If I did not engage in the recommended levels of physical activity each week over the next month I would feel sad (1 Strongly disagree -5 Strongly agree).
41. If I did not engage in the recommended levels of physical activity each week over the next month I would feel disappointed(1 Strongly disagree -5 Strongly agree).
42. If I did engage in the recommended levels of physical activity each week over the next month I would feel proud (1 Strongly disagree -5 Strongly agree).
43. If I did engage in the recommended levels of physical activity each week over the next month I would feel joy (1 Strongly disagree -5 Strongly agree).
44. If I did engage in the recommended levels of physical activity each week over the next month I would feel happy (1 Strongly disagree -5 Strongly agree).
45. If I did engage in the recommended levels of physical activity each week over the next month I would feel satisfied (1 Strongly disagree -5 Strongly agree).