Incorporation of informal music learning practices in a primary classroom in Cyprus

Recently, a growing interest from music educators and researchers has focused on the ways informal music learning practices could be integrated in schools’ classrooms, in a response to bridge the gap between the music studied at school and the hidden or private musical world of our students. This qualitative case study investigated the use of Green’s informal learning approach in three stages as derived from Musical Futures, but with some differences. Participants were 18 fifth-grade students (aged 10–11 years) in a rural school in Cyprus, along with eight parents. The findings here focus on exploring the learning process that the children underwent, derived from a larger study which also examined the benefits (musical and extra-musical) perceived by children and their parents. Despite differences in the cultural contexts, musical styles, and ages of the children, findings reveal similarities with related work on informal music learning in other cultural contexts, and with Green’s original work. However, different from Green’s work which was set in secondary schools, but similar to other research on Musical Futures in primary schools, students extensively used singing and incorporated movement throughout the learning process. Findings support the notion that young students can construct their music learning when given the opportunity to be active agents and collaborators in the learning process.

study, Finnegan (1989) compared the differences between participation in formal and informal practices and reported that musicians who experienced both formal and informal settings regarded those contexts as separate, with informal settings considered more valuable. Aural copying, musical choice, and the social context in the informal learning processes have also been noted as important (Cope & Smith, 1997;Green, 2002;Woody & Lehmann, 2010). The values accompanying these practices emphasize developing a passion for music; a broad knowledge, understanding, and appreciation of various kinds of music; and a commitment to gaining enjoyment and satisfaction from playing music (Green, 2002).
To connect students' private musical worlds to the music studied in schools, attention has been drawn to the value of incorporating and adapting informal learning processes in classrooms. Many researchers have investigated the integration of informal learning pedagogies in schools (e.g. Chua & Ho, 2013;Davis, 2013;Evans et al., 2015;Green, 2008;Kastner, 2014;Lill, 2015;Linton, 2014;Mariguddi, 2019;Moore, 2019;Seifried, 2006;Väkevä, 2010;Westerlund, 2006). There are also other studies that implemented informal learning pedagogies in extra curricular school settings (e.g. Allsup, 2003;Andrews, 2013). As a former primary school teacher who observed students' unwillingness to participate in music activities, I wondered whether informal learning practices could provide a workable space for primary students to act as collaborators-sharing musical ideas, solving musical problems, and enjoying music.
Three things made this study interesting: (1) the absence of awareness and application of informal pedagogy in Cyprus, since, even though aural approaches are stressed in the revised National Curriculum for Music (2010) (see also http://mousd.schools.ac.cy/index.php/el/mousiki/analytikoprogramma), and informal learning appears in the formal document, informal pedagogy is yet to be used broadly in schools; (2) the growing international interest in applying informal learning practices in contexts beyond secondary education such as primary schools (e.g. Benson, 2012;Davis, 2013;Jeanneret et al., 2011;Kastner, 2014;Lill, 2015;Linton, 2014;Moore, 2019) or in higher education (Feichas, 2010;Mok, 2017;Narita, 2012); and (3) the different cultural context of students in this particular study, especially the use of a traditional Cypriot song in 7/8 m rather than contemporary popular music. Studies that examined informal music learning in elementary schools (e.g. Davis, 2013;Lill, 2015;Linton, 2014;Moore, 2019) revealed that this approach allowed students to become agents of their learning and to adopt fluid musical roles and routines. Lill (2015) found that learning occurred in a decentralized, mobile, and non-hierarchical structure that encouraged participants to enter a flow state. Additionally, all these studies indicated that students developed musical and non-musical skills. Consequently, incorporating informal learning in a primary school classrooms in Cyprus appeared to be an interesting area for research.
I investigated the experiences of 18 fifth-grade students (aged 10-11 years) at a rural primary school in Cyprus, as well as parents' perceptions. I was the students' music teacher and I had already taught them music during the previous year. Their general class teacher was also present during most of the lessons. I provided them with the opportunity to apply the three first stages of the program which form the basis of the Musical Futures project (Green, 2008; see also https:// www.musicalfutures.org/). Musical Futures is a seven-stage project based on Green's prior research with popular musicians (Green, 2002). The five main characteristics that feature in this approach are: (a) learning music that pupils choose, like and identify with, (b) listening and copying recordings through purposive listening, (c) peer-directed learning in friendship groups, (d) personal, often haphazard learning without structured guidance, and (e) integration of listening, performing, and composing throughout the learning process. From the Musical Futures project, in my classroom, I applied: stages 1 and 3, where students copied by ear and performed an entire song which they chose for themselves with their friendship groups, and stage 2, where students copied by ear and performed a broken-down song when given the riffs as separate tracks on a recording. However, instead of the pop song "Word Up" which was used and broken down in Green's (2008) program, I provided students with the audio material of the well-known Cypriot song "Treis Elies" in 7/8 m. As did Green with the "Word Up" song, I recorded and gave the students a full arrangement of the song in one track, and in subsequent tracks, a separate part of the arrangement played on its own in loops, so that the same thing was played over and over again for a few minutes. I thought that a traditional Cypriot song would work better for my students than a Western-style pop song, even though it is in a more complex meter and rhythm. This meter is familiar to most Cypriot children and, as will be seen, the data suggest that they approached it with ease. They are encultured (Green, 2002) in this kind of music, which they are exposed to naturally outside the classroom (Marsh, 2008), by hearing it and dancing to it in the home, at weddings and many other events.
Four research questions guided my study overall: 1. What learning processes are observable as the children approach the task, and how do they cope with the challenges integrated in the task? 2. Based on their experiences, how do students perceive informal music learning practices? 3. How do they identify the value of this experience? 4. How do their parents view the project, and do their views corroborate those of the children, and of previous research?
However, in this article I will focus mainly on the learning processes in which the children engaged, with some evidence regarding learning processes from parents. Other areas, that is, the children's perceptions of informal learning, the values they attached to the experience, and the parents' views about those particular areas, will only be mentioned briefly.

Methodology
I employed a case study using ethnographic techniques, mostly influenced by Denzin and Lincoln (2008), to explore participants' perceptions and interactions in natural settings. I focused on uncovering the elements of the pedagogy that shaped my students' musical engagement and investigated how they perceived their experiences (Denzin & Lincoln, 2008) to answer the "how" and "why" of their experience and to hear "what" they had to share concerning this innovative way of learning music (Yin, 2018). I also interviewed parents. Over a 5-month period, I encouraged my students to apply informal music learning practices in three stages, as mentioned above. While introducing the approach, I explained to the students that they would have the opportunity to work in groups and make music. I encouraged them to form friendship groups (four to six members) (this was a crucial part of Green's program) and assigned each group a specific room to work in. The students formed four groups. Each stage lasted 5 to 6 weeks, with one lesson per week lasting 80 minutes. In each stage the students were required to (a) work autonomously in friendship groups, (b) copy by ear their favorite music in stages 1 and 3 and "Treis Elies" in stage 2, and practice the songs using musical instruments of their choice, and (c) in the final lesson of each stage, perform the songs in front of the class. I provided each group with a computer and a keyboard; however, the music classroom, as is common in Cyprus's music classrooms, was equipped with Orff and percussion instruments that were available for use. At the end of each stage after the performances, I encouraged students to share their experiences in open discussions.
I chose four students with diverse characteristics (Wellington, 2015) to act as the key informants for incorporating multiple realities (Cohen et al., 2011;Stake, 1995) and to approach data analysis using multiple data sources, thus enhancing the research reliability. These students had different musical skills, backgrounds, preferences, and interests. These students were members of different friendship groups. I interviewed the students individually at the beginning, middle, and end of the project and encouraged informal conversations among them during its implementation to gain a comprehensive understanding of their experiences. I also interviewed their parents at the beginning and at the end of the project, to gain their perspectives on the students. In addition, I conducted group interviews within each friendship group and held class discussions at each stage of the study. The interview questions and discussions focused on students' experiences, their practices, problems faced, thoughts and perceptions about the nature of the assignments, and their opinions on the value of the experience. I also interviewed the class teacher at the beginning and end of the project. The interviews were semi-structured and lasted 15 to 20 minutes each. The open class discussions were initiated during the performance session of each phase and lasted 20 minutes.
I collected, transcribed, and analyzed the data following the thematic analysis steps recommended by Creswell (2008). I regularly reviewed, reflected on, and interpreted the collected data after each unit of study, working back and forth between the data to understand the case in-depth and to determine themes and codes, with a focus on students' perceptions and meanings. I used pseudonyms for key informants and all participants.
I played both the teacher/facilitator and researcher/participant observer roles. The two roles were not in conflict during data collection; rather, this approach and the role of the teacher-facilitator as described in Green (2008), gave me the flexibility to collect data without impediments. Several studies conducted on informal learning by researchers who were also teachers reported that the two roles did not conflict (Allsup, 2003;Benson, 2012;Davis, 2013). Since I was already the children's music teacher, I believe they behaved naturally and expressed their perceptions openly. However, to achieve reflexivity and ensure trustworthiness, I allowed events and situations to speak for themselves, never seeking to confirm topics but rather continuously reflecting on the authentic and natural way data evolved in the research setting (Cohen et al., 2011). The personal reflective journal I used during the collection of data enhanced my attempt to act effectively in my role as a researcher. To ensure trustworthiness I also used prolonged engagement in the research setting, member checks, peer debriefing, and referential adequacy; and I organized, coded, and triangulated my data in detail. Following Lincoln and Guba (1985), I sent transcripts to interview participants so they could edit their responses and ensure accuracy. Peer researchers reviewed the interview transcripts (which were coded and analyzed for emergent themes) to ensure accuracy of the codes. Additionally I invited a researcher to visit the research setting regularly, to observe, review the data, and reflect its interpretation. We were continuously engaged in discussion to share our views and address any concerns that arose (Lincoln & Guba, 1985).
Before proceeding with data collection, I obtained ethical approval from the Centre for Educational Research and Evaluation of the Ministry of Education, Culture, Youth and Sports, in Cyprus, and consent from all participants. Consent forms included a succinct description of the research plan, with the indication the participants who agreed to join were free to withdraw their consent at any time without any consequences. Since English is not the main language in Cyprus where the study took place, translation issues were also addressed. I translated the data into English, and my colleagues in music education, fluent in English and Greek, reviewed them.

Student abilities and attitudes before the informal learning experience
To understand my case before the incorporation of the informal learning experience, I took notes and diarized the students' attitudes and progress, and I interviewed their general teacher who described the students as follows: It is a very lively and tough class, I would say. These children challenge and criticize me all the time. They are definitely not easy-going kids. They do not set limits on themselves, sometimes. I have a hard time teaching them. I cannot manage the classroom easily. (General teacher's interview, January 2015) Before starting the project, the majority of students in this class reported that they were unwilling to engage in school music activities. One boy said "Is there any value in learning music [at school]? Isn't it enough just to listen to your favorite music at home?" (informal discussion) Parent interviews also revealed that music was not a component in most students' families, apart from one, Evelina, who acted as one of the key informants, of whom I will give more details later. Parents could not afford to provide their children with any musical activities outside school.
Some of the students knew how to play the recorder and the Orff instruments, but they were reluctant about music learning. Just five of them were enrolled in the school choir and orchestra, and during class activities, as with the children in Green's (2008) study who took instrument lessons, they were initially observed to be hesitant to get involved.
The four key informants were Grigoris, Mia, Evelina, and Anna, and when I interviewed them, they reported that they possessed low self-esteem concerning music abilities and expressed the absence of musical talent and an inability to succeed in music. Grigoris (key informant) said, "I do not have a good voice, nor do I know how to play an instrument" (Grigoris's interview #1, February 2015). Other students, for example, Petros, stated, "I am not good at music! I would like to get involved in music activities, but I do not have the skills to accomplish them" (Group discussion #1, January 2015).
Before the project I portrayed the informants as follows: ○ Grigoris reported dissatisfaction with school music lessons and believed that he lacked the talent to achieve musically. He questioned the value of music education and thought he could not sing in tune. He was not interested in playing any instruments. ○ Mia expressed a love for music. In my observations she had participated successfully in all activities and was among the few students who expressed interest in music. She was a member of the school choir, and she stated that if her parents were financially comfortable, she would have taken piano lessons. ○ Evelina was the only student in the class with a musical background who had taken instrument lessons outside of school. She took violin lessons and participated in a string orchestra. When I interviewed her parents, they said they valued musical engagement, therefore they had arranged these lessons for her. Her mother stated that she was talented. She was a member of the school orchestra and expressed a willingness to become a musician. "My dream is to become a musician one day" (Evelina's interview #1, February 2015). ○ Anna was unmotivated to participate in school music lessons and preferred rock music which she listened to in her free time. She said that school music was boring, and she could not see any reason to participate in school music activities.

Findings
This study's findings are largely consistent with those of Green (2008) and others on informal music education in various countries, including Singapore (Chua & Ho, 2013), Australia (Benson, 2012;Jeanneret et al., 2011;Lill, 2015), Canada (Linton, 2014;O' Neill & Bespflug, 2012;Wright, 2011), the UK (Evans et al., 2015;Lill, 2015;Mariguddi, 2019;Moore, 2019), the USA (Kastner, 2014), and Brazil (Narita, 2012). Their results indicate that the Musical Futures approach motivated students and facilitated their musical and social skills. The social aspect of the task, working in friendship groups, and the challenge of working autonomously with agency throughout the learning process were essential in the present study and in Green (2008) and the other studies (e.g., Evans et al., 2015;Lill, 2015;Linton, 2014). The human elements of trust and choice have been shown to be important, as also highlighted by Mariguddi (2019) and "prompts one to wonder to what extent educators underestimate the abilities of these young students" (Linton, 2014, p. 236). The project fostered a collaborative ethos where students engaged in dialogs, discussions, decision-making, idea sharing, and peer teaching. Listening carefully to the music they selected while thinking about their own performance facilitated their musical understanding, as reported in Green (2008); however, there were some differences.

Students' learning processes during informal learning
The data show that in the first sessions the students worked enthusiastically with their friends on the songs they had chosen. Each group chose songs from a variety of styles and genres, including Greek pop, English pop, Greek laika, traditional Cypriot songs, and rock songs. This was a wider selection than the choice reported by Green (2008). Students in her study chose only music in the current pop charts for Stage 1 and branched out to a greater variety of genres only in Stage 3. The present study's results may be explained by the musical culture and background of Cypriot students, as similarly reported by Lill (2015) who found that young people choose music in which they are enculturated, and that the informal approach reflects their everyday (outside school) musical culture. The concept of enculturation was also cited as a fundamental component of informal music learning with popular musicians (Green, 2002). However, students in the present study reported their disappointment after their first attempts at copying a song by ear, "We spent a lot of time trying to find the starting note and matching the audio recording of the song with playing the instrument. Some of the girls in my group were frustrated" (Mia's interview #1, February 2015). The students strived to master the task, and some were overwhelmed at the first stage. One student stated, "It is strange to be left alone [during the task], you are responsible for your progress, and this is challenging" (Group discussion #2, March 2015). Another said, "It is a messy process; I cannot decide where to begin. I guess the easiest part is to sing along with the audio (laughing)" (Group discussion #2, March 2015). As the process developed during the second and third stages, they became more confident. Grigoris said, "It was challenging and difficult at the beginning when we were working [on] the first song. Now, I think we have found the route. We know how to go for it. . ..," and another boy said, "I believe our ears were better trained after the first two stages, and the third stage was the most enjoyable because we didn't face any struggles. It was an easier process at the end," (Group discussion #3, May 2015).
I observed that all the groups started the task by repeatedly listening to the audio they chose, singing along, and moving to the song. For most groups, clapping, tapping, and the use of percussion instruments for rhythmic accompaniment of the sound were natural from the beginning (field notes). They said during group discussion that the most difficult part was to spot a preliminary melodic phrase in an instrument and build up the melody of the chosen song from there. The majority of students chose a keyboard for this task, but in some cases they used the xylophone. Mia expressed her effort to match her singing to the correct notes on the keyboard as follows: Please do not talk; I have to concentrate (addressing the group; after experimenting on the keyboard, she said) This is it! Listen, I think I got the right sound. It goes la! la! la! (singing and performing on the keyboard). Let us see. . . No, here I should go lower and not higher. What do you think? (asking the rest of the group) (transcript from recording, February 2015) Throughout the project, the students engaged in music making and seemed motivated and content; it was noticeable that there was always some kind of "music making" going on. I found it remarkable that in most cases, even when each group decided to take a short break between their rehearsals, they sang other songs to demonstrate the musical skills they had learned during the sessions, moved rhythmically, improvised, and experimented with their instruments. Their class teacher commented saying, "Everyone is singing, moving, and making music, eh? Really interesting!" (transcript from recording, April 2015).
Again, unlike Green (2008), but similar to Linton (2014), singing seemed to be an integral part of the entire process for each student and students sang to accompany their performances and listened to identify musical aspects such as harmony, accompaniment, and the bass line from the audios. "We sing a lot, all of us, during the work. It helps us understand the song" (Group discussion #2, April 2015). Experimenting with their instruments and demonstrating various techniques to each other were fundamental strategies that they employed. "We tried things out on our instruments, you know, experimenting . . . and decided how to proceed with the performance" Christina said. Adding, "I have never played the xylophone before, but Evelina showed me how. Now I know how to keep my wrist relaxed and make a nice sound." (Group interview #3, May 2015).
Students were found to use movement more intensively than in Green's (2008) study. Kinesthetic learning and the use of movement were found to be central in the research of Lill (2015) and Davis (2013). Data from parents' interviews also confirmed the use of singing and moving as it also happened in the home. We can speculate that this may be because the children were younger than most of the children in the other studies and that the use of music for dancing is common in Cypriot family culture, such as at weddings and in many other everyday activities. The use of the traditional Cypriot song in Step 2, with its complex beat and rhythm, was described by the students as easy to perform because they had the arrangement tracks separately and were familiar with the song. During the final group discussion one boy said "With the first song, I admit that we faced difficulties with copying it, 'Treis Elies' was easy -we knew it so well, it was in our . . .heads from before I guess. . ." Another girl added, "I think it is because we know how to dance to that ['Treis Elies'], and we could feel the rhythm better and synchronize" (Group discussion #3, May 2015). However a further comparative study would be required to provide a fuller explanation.
Making decisions concerning the distribution of musical roles for the performance (considering the different characteristics and preferences of all group members), the selection of suitable instruments for the song, the vocals, the song accompaniment, the difficult phrases, and being synchronized and coordinated during the performance were the students' main challenges. Discussions were held within the groups democratically, without serious conflicts, as also reported by Green (2008), Mariguddi (2019), and Linton (2014). The dialog below represents some of the students' discussions to decide on their musical roles:

Mia:
Who will sing the refrain?

Georgia:
I am not interested in that role, girls. I would rather play the xylophone.

Lucia:
Let us sing it together, Christina.

Mia:
Why don't you try it and we shall see how it sounds.

Georgia:
Girls, we have to chose the best option for our presentation.

Christina:
You are right, it's important to make a goooood presentation.
(transcript from recording, March 2015) Besides making decisions related to the musical performances, students faced stage fright during each phase of the project, because they had to perform in front of the whole class. Some students reported on their feelings regarding class performances; one said, "I was nervous, I practiced my role palying the glockenspiel a lot, just two melodies for the introduction but still, I was anxious to perform it perfectly." Another said, "We encouraged each other before the performance; we had figured out signs that would help us remember our entries for the song and our coordination. My friends were around me, so I was fine and excited to show the rest of the class our musical achievement" (Group discussion #3, May 2015). Mia's mother also reported that the day before each performance her daughter rehearsed a lot at home and shared with her family her anxiety and enthusiasm for the coming performance. Emphasis on stage fright was not reported in Green (2008) or in the other research mentioned above.
Further findings concern autonomous peer-directed learning, the power of ongoing music making, and the impact of informal learning on the students. Related to the studies of Green (2008), Jeanneret et al. (2011), Benson (2012, Narita (2012), O' Neill andBespflug (2012), and Chua and Ho (2013), students mostly valued the opportunity to work autonomously in friendship groups where they could collaborate, solve musical problems, make decisions, and perform the music they liked. Even though learning was not "algorithmic or hierarchically organized in levels" (Rodriguez, 2009, p. 38), it was structured and driven by the students. The power of ongoing active music making and being able to work autonomously in friendship groups were found to be fundamental motives for their engagement. "We did not have you [teacher] to tell us what to do. We had to figure it out [ourselves]," said Grigoris during his interview (Grigoris interview #2, March 2015). Teamwork and democratic processes facilitated their development and provided an authentic venue for music involvement, which they valued. One student said, "I felt confident to try things out! Nobody was there to judge me. It's fine if you make a mistake in front of your friends" (Group interview #2, April 2015) and another one, "We are learning on our own, Miss! We teach each other, we do not need you right now" (field notes, February 2015).
My crosschecked data between students and parents revealed that the experience of informal music learning had changed students. They reported an important impact on their aural skills development and interpretation of the songs, and on social abilities. They stated that they learned to collaborate, communicate, interact, share, and respect each other in the group, and they cultivated a community of learning that offered a precious music experience. "I believe other students in other schools should experience this unusual unique way of learning. It was so precious for us" (Group interview #3, May 2015).
Data from the key informants and their parents suggest that all the students were engaged in the project without any significant difference, despite the diversity of their musical backgrounds; the task changed them. Even for Evelina, who had skills in violin performance, the project appeared to be challenging and she was not at an advantage compared to the other students. She confessed that she did not know how to copy music auditorily before the project, and she noted that her listening skills had developed. She appreciated the opportunity to develop another aspect of her musical skills, "I used to decode music from a score in order to play my violin. Now I can play music using just my ears, and I had the chance to work in a group. Music learning is a lonely path sometimes" (Evelina's interview #3, May 2015). In addition, Evelina evaluated the experience as very important and an enjoyable way to learn music without getting bored. Her parents supported these statements, reporting that she was playing popular songs on her violin, something that they did not observe before the project (Parents' interview #2, April 2015).
Grigoris said that he felt more confident about music and he was proud of himself for being able to sing and play musical instruments with his team. After the project, he asked to be a part of the school orchestra and became willingly involved in all subsequent music class activities. "My perception about music has changed! I like music! Emm no, I am not saying that I will spend all day playing music, but (pause) I have changed my perception about the importance of music" (Grigoris's interview #3, May 2015).
Mia reported that this experience also changed the way she listened to a song, "I was listening to music before, but now I listen to the songs with more interest and passion, with more desire to go deeper. With more attention, I can say!" (Mia's interview #3, May 2015).
Anna-who was unmotivated to participate in music lessons before the project-collaborated with her group and was a positive addition (field notes). The informal music learning processes and being part of a friendly group fostered her engagement. "I was so bored in the music class before now, but I liked the way we worked in our groups" (Anna's interview #3, May 2015). Overall, the participants expressed that incorporating informal learning practices in the music lessons was beneficial, developing their musical skills and allowing them to enjoy music making.

Discussion
This study's findings regarding the learning processes in which the children engaged, also covered issues of active music engagement, the development of musical skills and knowledge, and social learning, are similar to related work on learning processes within informal music learning in other contexts and to Green's (2008) original work, despite the differences in age, cultural context, and the music used. Students responded positively to the informal music learning approach; it inspired them to participate in music-making activities, which they found meaningful and exciting. The concepts of encouraging enthusiasm, motivation, enjoyment, and flow experiences were also stressed in Benson, Moore (2019), Lill (2015) and Linton (2014) and Kastner (2014) and investigated in informal music learning practices in primary school settings. Several students loved to work on the task at home and during school breaks, as described by O' Neill and Bespflug (2012) in the Canada project. Most of the parents noted that their children were eager and motivated to come to school on Fridays, due to the music project (Parents' interview #2, April 2015).
The social interaction and collaboration aspects inherent in the approach had a major impact on the process and facilitated students' growth, as reported in other similar research (Chua & Ho, 2013;Evans et al., 2015;Green, 2008;Jeanneret et al., 2011;Linton, 2014;Moore, 2019;O' Neill & Bespflug, 2012;Wright, 2011). This finding supports Green (2002) regarding the importance of the social dimension in informal music learning.

Conclusion
This case study revealed that informal music learning practices in a fifth-grade primary classroom in Cyprus provided participants with a space to work autonomously and to develop musical and non-musical skills through the natural process of enculturation (Green, 2002). Their approach to learning and learning processes matured as the project continued, and they developed strategies with which to approach the task (Green, 2012). The lack of electronic instruments in the classroom did not seem to hinder the process, as also found by Kastner (2014) and Linton (2014). This finding strongly supports the position that informal pedagogy can embrace music apart other than popular music (Allsup, 2008;Folkestad, 2006). My students chose to perform songs in various genres (Greek pop, English pop, Greek laika, Cypriot traditional, and rock songs), bringing in the learning setting of their musical cultures (Lill, 2015). The Cypriot traditional song in 7/8 (with complex rhythm) used in the second stage, appeared to be appropriate for them as they were enculturated in this style of song (Green, 2002). This finding supports Marsh's (2008) assertion that children are exposed and naturally get involved in complex music outside of the classroom, contrary to notions of the assumed simplicity of young children's musical engagement.
Findings concerning the learning processes used by the present study's students showed some differences compared to Green (2008). In this study, there was extensive use of singing, as in Linton's (2014) research, and movement by all students during the process as in Davis (2013) and Lill (2015). In addition, students chose a wider range of songs, including some that were not hits at the time of the project, as in Lill (2015).
Although the findings of this inquiry correspond to a particular group of students and are not generalizable, they suggest that primary students can control and organize their learning effectively. The students' perceptions of the meaning of this informal approach indicate that trusting their abilities and considering themselves capable musicians-and therefore, allowing them to experiment, interpret, and discover the possibilities of musical practice in their own way-could strengthen their motivation and alter their willingness to get involved in and value music-making. As a teacher-researcher, I value the experience of acting as a "participator and co-learner" (Westerlund, 2006, p. 122) in the learning setting and giving my students space to enact their potential. The findings of this study align with previous research investigating the intersection between formal and informal pedagogy in general music classrooms at the primary school level, embracing the idea of children as agents and active participants in the construction of musical knowledge (Linton, 2014).

Author's note
This article is based on my Doctoral dissertation which was submitted to the Department of Music Studies, School of Philosophy, at the National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, Greece, for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Music Education, in July 2016.