Apples inside orange peels: Exploring the use of functional equivalents for comparing curriculum processes across contexts

Comparative education research is complicated by the difficulty of identifying comparable units across contexts. This paper considers the advantages and limitations of a functional equivalence approach to comparative education. The functional equivalence approach allows us to meaningfully compare the operations that serve each function in the full curriculum value chain of design, application, and updating. We use a theory-based list of common processes in each phase to develop a survey for experts from nine countries, then code their responses to derive ten key common functions. The functional equivalence approach allows us to aggregate some operations that serve the same functions, so our set of functional equivalents is slightly shorter than the theory-based list of processes. In comparing across contexts, we find easily identifiable functional equivalents, functional equivalents that manifest through very different operations, functional equivalents carried out by a wide variety of actors and institutions, similar operations that are not functionally equivalent, and functional equivalents that are not consistently present in all contexts. The functional equivalence approach helps identify comparable operations despite contextual diversity.


Process codes (in-vivo codes
The following questions relate to different phases of the curriculum process.When answering these questions, please think about the program and curriculum you just selected.

Explanations
 By developing the curriculum, we refer to any processes before defining the curriculum, any processes of defining the curriculum, and any processes of finalizing the curriculum. By main processes, we mean the main tasks that the involved parties and actors have to fulfill until the intended curriculum is developed. Please do not use any abbreviations and write the full names of processes and actors.[open text field] Process 2 from a.
[open text field] Process 3 from a.
[open text field] Defining the curriculum Process 4 from a.
[open text field] Process 5 from a.
[open text field] Process 6 from a.
[open text field] Finalizing the curriculum Process 7 from a.
[open text field] Process 8 from a.
[open text field] Process 9 from a.
[open text field] c) Who is involved in each process?Please list the main actor groups for each process (e.g.teacher, business sector people):

Process
Involved actors Before defining the curriculum Process 1 from a.
[open text field] Process 2 from a.
[open text field] Process 3 from a.
[open text field] Defining the curriculum Process 4 from a.
[open text field] Process 5 from a.
[open text field] Process 6 from a.
[open text field] Finalizing the curriculum Process 7 from a.
[open text field] Process 8 from a.
[open text field] Process 9 from a.
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Explanations
 By applying the curriculum, we refer to the time before, during, and after program delivery. By main processes, we mean the main tasks that the involved parties and actors have to fulfill until the curriculum is delivered. Please do not use any abbreviations and write the full names of processes and actors.[open text field] Process 2 from a.
[open text field] Process 3 from a.
[open text field] During program delivery Process 4 from a.
[open text field] Process 5 from a.
[open text field] Process 6 from a.
[open text field] End of program delivery Process 7 from a.
[open text field] Process 8 from a.
[open text field] Process 9 from a.
[open text field] c) Who is involved in each process?Please list the main actor groups for each process:

Involved actors Before program delivery
Process 1 from a.
[open text field] Process 2 from a.
[open text field] Process 3 from a.
[open text field] During program delivery Process 4 from a.
[open text field] Process 5 from a.
[open text field] Process 6 from a.
[open text field] End of program delivery Process 7 from a.
[open text field] Process 8 from a.
[open text field] Process 9 from a.
[open text field]

Explanations
 By evaluating a curriculum, we mean any processes before and during the decision to revise the curriculum (after the decision, the curriculum development phase starts again). By main processes, we mean all tasks that the involved parties and actors have to fulfill until it is evaluated. Please do not use any abbreviations and write the full names of processes and actors.[open text field] Process 2 from a.
[open text field] Process 3 from a.
[open text field] During curriculum revision decision Process 4 from a.
[open text field] Process 5 from a.
[open text field] Process 6 from a.
[open text field] c) Who is involved in each process?Please list the main actor groups for each process:

Involved actors Before curriculum revision decision
Process 1 from a.
[open text field] Process 2 from a.
[open text field] Process 3 from a.
[open text field] During curriculum revision decision Process 4 from a.
[open text field] Process 5 from a.
[open text field] Process 6 from a.
[open text field]

End of Survey
Thank you for participating in our survey.Notes: The columns show all analysed cases and categorize them according to their global region, economy and programme level; For each programme, it shows the name of the socially constructed processes and the involved actor groups (A=teacher, B=company, C=professional association, D=Ministry of Education, E=Ministry of Labour, F=policy maker, G=pedagogical institute / teacher university, H=researcher, I=principal / school, J=Ministry of Education affiliated agency, K=Other.-

May
The columns show all analysed cases and categorize them according to their global region, economy and programme level; For each programme, it shows the name of the socially constructed processes and the involved actor groups (A=teacher, B=company, C=professional association, D=Ministry of Education, E=Ministry of Labour, F=policy maker, G=pedagogical institute / teacher university, H=researcher, I=principal / school, J=Ministry of Education affiliated agency, K=Other.Notes: The columns show all analysed cases and categorize them according to their global region, economy and programme level; For each programme, it shows the name of the socially constructed processes and the involved actor groups (A=teacher, B=company, C=professional association, D=Ministry of Education, E=Ministry of Labour, F=policy maker, G=pedagogical institute / teacher university, H=researcher, I=principal / school, J=Ministry of Education affiliated agency, K=Other. open text field] [open text field] 3) [open text field] [open text field] 6. a) What are the main processes for evaluating a curriculum?Please list the 4

your country or state, what is the biggest upper-secondary education program that prepares students to enter the job market?
Enter the program name, i.e.TVET, High School CTE, etc.
In the following questions, please refer your answers to that

Table A1 :
Functional equivalent for curriculum content development (CD1)Notes: The columns show all analysed cases and categorize them according to their global region, economy and programme level; For each programme, it shows the name of the socially constructed operations and the involved actor groups (A=teacher, B=company, C=professional association, D=Ministry of Education, E=Ministry of Labour, F=policy maker, G=pedagogical institute / teacher university, H=researcher, I=principal / school, J=Ministry of Education affiliated agency, K=Other.

Table A3 :
Functional Equivalence 3: Curriculum approval (CD3, Code 1.30) Notes: The columns show all analysed cases and categorize them according to their global region, economy and programme level; For each programme, it shows the name of the socially constructed processes and the involved actor groups (A=teacher, B=company, C=professional association, D=Ministry of Education, E=Ministry of Labour, F=policy maker, G=pedagogical institute / teacher university, H=researcher, I=principal / school, J=Ministry of Education affiliated agency, K=Other.

Table A5 :
Functional Equivalence 5: Qualification of personnel(CA2, code 2.30)The columns show all analysed cases and categorize them according to their global region, economy and programme level; For each programme, it shows the name of the socially constructed processes and the involved actor groups (A=teacher, B=company, C=professional association, D=Ministry of Education, E=Ministry of Labour, F=policy maker, G=pedagogical institute / teacher university, H=researcher, I=principal / school, J=Ministry of Education affiliated agency, K=Other.The columns show all analysed cases and categorize them according to their global region, economy and programme level; For each programme, it shows the name of the socially constructed processes and the involved actor groups (A=teacher, B=company, C=professional association, D=Ministry of Education, E=Ministry of Labour, F=policy maker, G=pedagogical institute / teacher university, H=researcher, I=principal / school, J=Ministry of Education affiliated agency, K=Other.The columns show all analysed cases and categorize them according to their global region, economy and programme level; For each programme, it shows the name of the socially constructed processes and the involved actor groups (A=teacher, B=company, C=professional association, D=Ministry of Education, E=Ministry of Labour, F=policy maker, G=pedagogical institute / teacher university, H=researcher, I=principal / school, J=Ministry of Education affiliated agency, K=Other.Notes: The columns show all analysed cases and categorize them according to their global region, economy and programme level; For each programme, it shows the name of the socially constructed operations and the involved actor groups (A=teacher, B=company, C=professional association, D=Ministry of Education, E=Ministry of Labour, F=policy maker, G=pedagogical institute / teacher university, H=researcher, I=principal / school, J=Ministry of Education affiliated agency, K=Other