Rethinking Teacher Retention Policy: Empowering Australian Teachers Through Autonomy, Collaboration and Career Progression

This article examines the challenges facing the teaching profession in Australia and proposes solutions to address issues of teacher retention, administrative workload and career progression. Providing autonomy to teachers and developing a clear career progression plan can help retain experienced teachers, and reducing administrative tasks and promoting collaboration can enhance teacher satisfaction and effectiveness. New roles for experienced teachers should be explored. These include instructional specialist roles that would provide teachers with opportunities for career progression and collaboration. Implementing such programmes would need to be justified to policymakers or even taxpayers, as they could involve potential financial costs. A comprehensive approach is necessary to ensure that teaching remains an attractive and rewarding profession in Australia for the country’s better prospects.


Introduction
It is estimated that Australia will face a shortage of approximately 4,100 secondary school teachers by 2025 (Australian Government Department of Education, 2022a, p. 3).A recent study conducted by Monash University revealed that 59% of teachers express a desire to leave the profession, indicating that a significant teacher exodus is a very real possibility (Heffernan et al., 2022).The COVID-19 pandemic has been identified as a major factor contributing to this trend, given the tremendous strain it has placed on teachers as essential workers.
In educational contexts, the phenomenon of instructing in a subject area or level outside of one's specialised training is commonly referred to as 'teaching out of area' (Hobbs et al., 2022).As shortages in classrooms persist, schools are increasingly relying on the deployment of 'out-of-area' or 'out-of-field' teachers to fulfil the areas of need.However, the extent of this issue is difficult to quantify, given inconsistencies in the operationalisation of this measure.Depending on the definition used, it can pertain to either the type of subject matter (e.g., mathematics, chemistry and English) or school level (e.g., upper primary and lower primary), or both.Variations in definition have resulted in significant discrepancies in the number of out-of-field teachers, as illustrated in Table 1.
Regardless of the definition used, the problem of out-of-field teaching is widely perceived to be increasing in prevalence, particularly in the light of the impact of the pandemic.The assignment of teachers to instruct in areas beyond their areas of expertise may lead to diminished self-efficacy and poor performance outcomes, ultimately driving educators away from the profession.As such, this practice poses a significant challenge to the quality of instruction and the retention of qualified personnel within the education sector.

Shortages in STEM Disciplines Are Particularly Prevalent
The scarcity of qualified teachers has become a particularly pressing concern within the science, technology, engineering and mathematics (STEM) disciplines.As demonstrated in Figure 1, there has been a marked decline in the enrolment of high-achieving students in education-related programmes, while STEM disciplines such as science, IT and health have experienced a surge in popularity.This shift has resulted in a long-term reduction in the pool of prospective teachers with Approximately 20% of secondary school mathematics teachers were teaching out of field in 2013 (Weldon, 2015).
Office of the Chief Scientist Approximately 40% of lower secondary school mathematics teachers were teaching out of field in 2012 (Hobbs, 2015).
Teaching and Learning International Survey (TALIS) conducted by the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) Approximately 5.3% of lower secondary school mathematics teachers were teaching out of field in 2013 (Freeman et al., 2014).
specialised training in STEM fields.The resultant shortage of STEM teachers has exacerbated the problem of out-of-field teaching, whereby educators are compelled to instruct in STEM subjects despite lacking the necessary expertise.
The rate of out-of-field teaching begins at approximately 35% for mathematics and reaches 41% for physics (Australian Institute for Teaching and School Leadership [AITSL], 2023).

Regional and Rural Shortages Are Particularly Affected
The scarcity of qualified teachers is most acutely felt in regional and remote areas.
As illustrated in Figure 1, while enrolment trends in initial teacher education (ITE) programmes have remained steady or increased slightly in metropolitan areas between 2006 and 2019, there has been a decline in regional and remote ITE enrolments.Notably, this decline has occurred despite population growth in these areas (ABS, 2021).Figure 2 further highlights the divergent trends in ITE commencements between metropolitan and regional/remote areas.Specifically, metropolitan ITE commencements have remained relatively stable, with only a slight decline in the last two years of the dataset.In contrast, there have been six years of decline in regional and remote ITE commencements between 2006 and 2019.This discrepancy in ITE commencements has transpired amid consistent population growth in regional and remote areas, ranging from 0.6% to 1.5% over the same period.The data presented in Figure 2 indicate that the decline in teaching supply in regional and remote areas has been persistent and ongoing, in contrast to metropolitan areas where the decline has been more recent.As a result, regional and remote schools have had to resort to non-traditional approaches to meet the demand for teachers, such as implementing remote teaching arrangements with on-site supervision.

Australia Is One Example of a Wider Global Problem
In response to the teacher shortage crisis, the Federal Education Minister has recently announced putting the issuance of visas for qualified teachers from countries including the United Kingdom and the United States on the fast track, with the former New South Wales (NSW) Education Minister, Sarah Mitchell, suggesting fast-tracking citizenships for teachers (Welch, 2022).However, it is unlikely that this strategy will significantly increase the supply of teachers in Australia.Notably, the countries from which Australia hopes to attract teachers are also grappling with teacher shortages.For example, in England, 44% of teachers plan to leave the profession by 2027, necessitating the recruitment of overseas teachers, including from Australia (Media, 2022).The United States is also facing severe teacher shortages, with a recent study reporting that more than 75% of school principals have experienced difficulties filling teaching vacancies in their schools (Lieberman, 2021).
The utilisation of an overseas supply as a remedy for teacher shortages is a provisional solution at best, as it would entail Australia competing for a diminishing global teacher supply seen in many countries and would therefore only create marginal supply changes.Recognising overseas teaching qualifications may also be a challenge, resulting in the need for people to complete bridging courses or other qualifications.The reasons prompting Australian teachers to exit the profession are prevalent in these nations as well.Although there is potential to recruit qualified teachers from many other countries, migration alone cannot serve as a dependable solution to resolve the issue of teacher shortages in Australia.To resolve the problem, it is imperative to identify the underlying factors that have resulted in the current trends of declining teacher numbers, which extend beyond the immediate impact of the pandemic.

The Professional Capital Framework
In order to comprehensively understand the root causes of teacher shortages, it is necessary to establish an appropriate framework.The professional capital framework, developed by Andy Hargreaves and Michael Fullan (2012), offers a concept that redefines the teaching profession as multifaceted and complex.This framework is useful for two interconnected reasons.First, it identifies the three broad aspects of the teaching profession that are essential to create a sustainable and sufficient teacher supply, with issues related to the profession fitting into one of these three aspects.Second, the framework provides an analytical lens that demonstrates the interconnectedness of the contributing factors, emphasising that addressing individual factors in isolation is unlikely to solve the problem.
The professional capital framework acknowledges that education requires a long-term investment.It recognises that teaching is a complex skill that requires a supportive system to augment teachers' abilities to meet high standards.The framework consists of three fundamental components, namely human capital, social capital and decisional capital (Hargreaves & Fullan, 2012).

Human Capital
In the context of the professional capital framework, human capital is concerned with the knowledge and skills possessed by teachers that are essential for effective pedagogical practices.This includes the capacity of teachers to deliver quality instruction to their students.While the quality of teaching is of great importance, it is critical to acknowledge that the challenges facing the education system extend beyond the competence of individual teachers.The prevailing issue at hand is the inadequate availability of social and decisional capital, which is impeding the development of a sustainable and adequate supply of teachers.

Social Capital
In an educational setting, social capital pertains to the quality and quantity of interactions and relationships among relevant stakeholders.These interactions influence the amount and type of knowledge and information available.Relevant actors include not only teachers but also principals, regulators, politicians, parents and students.Social capital acknowledges that education is a collective effort, and while teachers have a critical role to play, it is not an isolated one.The significance of social capital is emphasised in Table 2, which indicates that although school systems with high human and social capital are the ideal scenario, school systems with high social capital can compensate for the absence of human capital.

Decisional Capital
In addition to human and social capital, decisional capital also plays a critical role in enhancing the existing structures in school systems.Decisional capital encompasses the knowledge and expertise acquired through experience, practice and reflection, both structured and unstructured, which enables professionals to make informed decisions in situations where there is no clear path to the right course of action.The ubiquitous nature of decisional capital underscores the fact that teaching is not a precise science with straightforward causal relationships; rather, it is a field fraught with complexity (Hargreaves & Fullan, 2012, p. 48).Therefore, accruing more decisional capital is paramount in transforming this complexity into greater simplicity.

The Major Causes of Teacher Shortages in Australian Schools
In the light of the aforementioned historical data, it appears that the COVID-19 pandemic merely served as a catalyst to an already neglected issue within the education sector.This analysis will explore three distinct factors that are currently exacerbating the problem of teacher shortages.

Media Perceptions Have Damaged the Status of the Teaching Profession
In the realm of public discourse, teachers have been subject to enduring negative rhetoric.A comprehensive study by Nicole Mockler of the University of Sydney in 2022 examined a total of 65,000 Australian print media articles from 1996 up until the onset of the COVID-19 pandemic in 2020.The study's findings revealed that the issue of 'quality', whether pertaining to teacher quality, education quality or teaching quality, was recurrently prominent in the discourse, with the term 'quality' ranking among the top 1.5% of the most frequently used words, as illustrated in Figure 3. 1  In the Australian media, the issue of quality has garnered significant attention, particularly from 2008 onwards, coinciding with the election of the Rudd-Gillard governments in November 2007.This period marked the introduction of the national curriculum, assessment regimes and teaching standards that were previously developed and administered by the states as part of the Labor government's 'education revolution', reframing the profession by focusing on quality.The increased focus on quality was evident in media coverage, which continued even after the Coalition's election to government in September 2013, and again it peaked in 2019 as it was an election year, as indicated by the high mentions of teacher quality and teaching quality compared with pre-2007 levels (see Figure 3).

Universal Experience of Education May Explain Our Obsession with Education and Teachers
The public's focus on teacher quality and education more broadly is a unique obsession.This is highlighted by Figure 4 that illustrates that teachers receive significantly more media coverage than other prominent professions, including nursing, which is considered comparable based on factors such as professional education, working conditions and status.
Education and the topic of teachers have become a prominent arena for debate for two reasons.First, it is one of the few universal experiences that most people share, having attended school at some point in their lives, and thus remembering good and bad teachers.Second, the widely held view that teachers are the linchpin to educational success, particularly when there is a decline in standardised testing such as NAPLAN or the OECD's PISA, places teachers at the centre of attention (Larsen, 2010, p. 208).
However, attributing declining student performance solely to teacher quality leads to a fundamental mischaracterisation of the problem, with an excessive emphasis on human capital.This view neglects the roles of other stakeholders in enhancing students' results, ignoring the significance of social capital in the teaching profession.Teaching is a collaborative endeavour that necessitates buy-in from various individuals, including students, parents, administrators, principals, bureaucrats and politicians, and cannot solely depend on the individual brilliance of teachers.Attributing a causal relationship between teachers and student performance places an excessive burden on teachers' pedagogical skills.Even the most excellent teachers worldwide will struggle if there is insufficient buy-in or support from other relevant actors.Performance evaluation initiatives require a 'level playing field' in areas such as family income, ethnicity and administrative support.However, this equality does not exist in Australia, underscoring the importance of social capital in compensating for these disparities.When the teaching profession is continually subjected to public criticism, its status understandably deteriorates.During the 2022 election campaign, the bipartisan concern was expressed, with the media widely reporting these sentiments as further evidence of the problem.In response to the then acting Federal Education Minister Stuart Robert's claim that 'dud teachers' were to blame for declining student performance, the Shadow Education Minister at the time, Tanya Plibersek, remarked, 'having an acting education minister who calls public teachers' "duds" doesn't help keep highly experienced, highly competent people in the classroom' (Dufy, 2022).While disparaging teachers is not a helpful tactic to retain teachers in the profession, neither is a fixation on teacher quality as a problem to solve.This rhetoric demonstrates that not only are politicians willing to use teachers as political scapegoats, but the bipartisan focus on quality also reveals how deeply ingrained this misleading rhetoric is.

Public Perceptions of Teachers in Finland
The Australian case can be contrasted with Finland that is internationally regarded as one of the best school systems in the world.Finnish school teachers hold a high professional status and enjoy immense respect.Remarkably, acceptance rates into Finnish ITE programmes are exceedingly low, hovering around 10%, thereby making it more difficult to gain admission to these programmes than to medicine or law programmes (Sahlberg, 2013).The reason for this lies in the acknowledgement of the transformative impact that high-quality education can have on society and the pivotal role played by teachers in bringing about this transformation.

Teacher Wages Are Stagnating as Teachers Gain More Experience
Discussions of teacher shortages have naturally led to a focus on the issue of wages within the profession.While wages have been identified as a concern in the teaching profession, the nature of this issue is more complex than a simple lack of remuneration.Typically, debates surrounding wages revolve around the notion that workers are being paid insufficiently.However, in the case of Australia, the issue of teaching wages is not as straightforward.Entry-level teaching wages in Australia are relatively high and comparable to those in other sectors, as indicated in Figure 5. Nonetheless, the earning potential of teachers does not keep pace with that of other industries, leading to a stagnation of future earnings.
The aforementioned situation poses a challenge for individuals contemplating a career in teaching, particularly in the light of the fact that teacher wages cannot rival those of other STEM professions, as demonstrated in Figure 5.As illustrated in Figure 6, wage considerations are an essential factor for high-achieving young Australians, according to research conducted by the Grattan Institute.
The prospect of making a positive impact remains a key incentive for individuals considering a career in teaching, as demonstrated by its ranking as the most important career consideration in Figure 6.However, according to the  Grattan Institute survey, the ability to effect positive change in teaching is not substantially higher than that in other professions.This narrow focus on human capital represents a problematic oversimplification of the issue, as it perpetuates the expectation that teaching is a vocation reserved for those who seek to serve a greater good and are therefore willing to endure any difficulties that may arise.However, other professions offer individuals the opportunity to earn a competitive salary while still contributing to the greater good.As previously demonstrated, the teaching profession has lost its competitive edge in attracting and retaining new entrants, as individuals are drawn to other fields such as science, health and IT that offer better wages while still fulfilling the desire to make a positive impact.

Management Increases Earning Potential, But This Is Not an Effective Solution to the Problem
Teachers may experience a salary increase if they transition into management positions such as becoming principal, although this presents additional risks.Such a move has the potential to remove teachers from the classroom, leading to a reduction in the number of experienced educators available to contribute to the development of social capital.This problem is particularly pronounced in the teaching profession, as the retention of experienced workers is already a significant challenge.Furthermore, a focus on managerial positions fails to address the fundamental issue facing Australia's educational landscape, which is a shortage of qualified teachers.

Teachers Face Enormous Workloads
During the 1980s, research conducted on teaching revealed that teachers were required to make roughly 1,500 decisions each day (Jackson, 1990).Since then, the teaching profession has undergone significant changes and has had to incorporate technological advancements to better equip students for an increasingly interconnected and globalised world.Moreover, the recent COVID-19 pandemic has placed further demands on teachers, like other essential workers.Consequently, the previously estimated number of decisions made per day is likely to be an underestimation (Mockler, 2022b).Australian teachers are currently facing increasing expectations to work longer hours and complete more tasks.
In comparison to their international counterparts, Australian teachers spend a significantly greater amount of time on various tasks.As demonstrated in Figure 7, Australian teachers spent more time than the OECD average on 7 of the 11 major tasks, leading to an additional 6 hours of work per week.Such a scenario places Australian teachers at a disadvantage relative to other high-performing school systems such as Finland and Estonia, where teachers have to work fewer hours.
The requirement for teachers to work additional hours is largely attributed to the significant administrative demands imposed by school management and education departments.As demonstrated earlier, Australian teachers spend an average of 1.4 more hours per week on administrative tasks than the OECD average.These tasks are predominantly compliance reporting for quality assurance purposes.This phenomenon contributes to the recurring issue of an undue focus on teacher quality, which is only a component of a much more multifaceted system.Through detailed and frequent reporting, authorities strive to guarantee that they can identify issues among educators.
Nonetheless, this pursuit seems to be counterproductive.According to a survey conducted by the University of Sydney, a prevalent opinion among teachers is that administrative duties, such as data collection and reporting, impede their core responsibility of educating students.This does not imply that administrative responsibilities should be entirely eliminated, but when 91% of public school teachers in New South Wales report that these duties restrict their capacity to teach, it suggests that the existing administrative requirements are too onerous (McGrath-Champ et al., 2018), though such requirements differ from state to state within Australia.
Furthermore, in addition to administrative tasks, teachers are expected to undertake numerous other responsibilities such as planning classes and professional development.Although teachers recognise that these duties are part of their role, there is a lack of support mechanisms to facilitate the completion of these tasks.For instance, the Independent Schools Multi-Enterprise Agreement for NSW and ACT teachers expects teachers to carry out normal duties such as administrative reporting, professional development and playground duties, without providing provisions for support in terms of pay or time allocation to fulfil these responsibilities.As a result, teachers are required to work more out-ofhour hours.According to the OECD survey, only 4% of Australian teachers receive salary supplements for completing out-of-hour tasks (OECD, 2014).The lack of support for teachers from regulators and education departments highlights an inadequate social capital, leading to increased workload for teachers.

Addressing the Challenges
The new Federal Labor government has recognised that the problem of teacher shortages is too great to ignore.Recently, the education minister, Jason Clare, released a Draft of National Teacher Workforce Action Plan (Department of Education, 2022).There are a few promising ideas to address some of the problems noted earlier; however, there are further solutions that could be explored as well.

Elevating the Status of Teaching
The Australian government has allocated $10 million towards a national promotional campaign aimed at raising the status of the teaching profession (Department of Education, 2022).The campaign will focus on highlighting the meaningful work done by teachers in a variety of settings, including Indigenous, rural, remote and STEM teachers, as well as the support teachers provide to children with additional needs.While this funding is a promising step towards improving perceptions of teachers, it cannot alone bring about the necessary change.To elevate the status of the profession, a sustained effort is required from all relevant stakeholders, as the attitudes towards teachers are deeply ingrained in the national conversation.This requires a sustained public messaging effort from those with influence to shift the tide in favour of teachers.It is not necessary that this effort be backed by public expenditure, only a change in thinking.
The government is also considering a 'teacher of the year' award from 2023, which aims to demonstrate public appreciation of educators (Department of Education, 2022, p. 1).However, according to Dr Nicole Mockler of Sydney University, these awards often focus on individual achievements, implicitly contrasting them with the collective teaching profession.The media often portrays teachers as 'incompetent', which is a false generalisation (Mockler, 2022a, p. 111).Such awards may create a success bias, where the exceptional achievements of a few individuals can lead to the false conclusion that the rest of the teaching profession is subpar.Until the wider public rhetoric around teachers changes, the efficacy of this award may be limited, and its implementation, premature.

Retaining Existing Teachers
In the current set of draft solutions proposed by the Federal Government, a significant emphasis is placed on increasing the number of individuals applying to become teachers.This involves implementing measures such as providing additional scholarships and recognising other relevant work experience and skills for university admissions.While these measures are promising, further actions are necessary to ensure that current teachers remain in the profession.As previously discussed, many teachers have expressed an interest in leaving due to issues of wages and workload.Even if potential teachers are incentivised to enter the profession, these benefits will dissipate if current teachers do not have a reason to continue teaching.Therefore, a comprehensive strategy must be developed to address the issues that lead to teacher attrition and promote teacher retention.

Work with Teachers to Reduce Administrative Burden and Increase Their Autonomy
Given that teachers are intimately familiar with the excessive administrative demands placed on them within the school system, it stands to reason that they should be leading the charge to reduce these requirements.To achieve this, in the Draft National Teacher Workforce Action Plan, 2022, the government has allocated a significant sum of $25 million to finance innovative initiatives that will be implemented in conjunction with state and territory jurisdictions to alleviate workload (Australian Government Department of Education, 2022b).However, it is disconcerting that there is no mention of teacher consultation in these efforts.Given the well-established fact that teachers are significantly burdened by administrative tasks, working in partnership with them to reduce this burden should be a primary consideration.
The teaching profession is a complex and multifaceted field where solutions are not always straightforward or evident.Administrative requirements imposed on teachers limit their freedom to address the intricacies of their work.This highlights the importance of decisional capital as the third key element in the professional capital framework.Like the fields of medicine and law, teaching requires a deep understanding of complexity and the ability to navigate it.Professionals in these fields spend years studying and practising under supervision before gaining experience under the guidance of more seasoned individuals.The trust and confidence that patients place in the medical advice given by doctors should similarly be extended to teachers, as they make informed decisions to benefit their students in the classroom.
Providing teachers with greater autonomy is a means of acknowledging their professional expertise and is likely to contribute to teacher retention.Research has shown that a lack of professional autonomy is the primary reason for teachers leaving the profession, even more so than inadequate salaries, as evidenced by interviews conducted with Finnish teachers (Hargreaves & Fullan, 2012).The Finnish education system is widely respected in part due to the trust placed in teachers to make sound decisions.Collaboration is a cornerstone of the Finnish system, with teachers expected to work together to address complex challenges.In contrast, working in isolation is discouraged.This is an example of social capital in action.In Australia, collaboration needs to be a more fundamental aspect of teaching, and time needs to be allocated to it without requiring teachers to work additional hours.Furthermore, collaboration can be taken a step further, as demonstrated in Shanghai, China.In high-performing school districts, there is a collaborative pairing with low-performing ones to address challenges and improve teaching practices (Schleicher, 2019, p. 23).Empowering teachers with autonomy and fostering collaboration are critical elements in achieving better educational outcomes.

Offer Teachers More Opportunities for Career Growth
In order to ensure the retention of experienced teachers, it is essential to focus on the development of a new career structure that includes a clear path for career progression, while maintaining a deep pedagogical involvement.A potential solution is the creation of new roles for experienced teachers as instructional specialists, who would continue to have a classroom role, but also provide instructional leadership and support to other teachers.The Grattan Institute recommends limiting this role to a small number of teachers, between 5% and 8%, and offering wages approximately $40,000 per year higher than the top salary of a standard classroom teacher, as illustrated in Figure 8.This would make teaching salaries more competitive relative to other careers.Additionally, the creation of a new role of master teachers (approximately 0.5% of teachers), who would work across multiple schools to support instructional specialists, could provide further opportunities for meaningful career progression that is comparable to other professions (Goss et al., 2019, p. 31).These changes would also increase opportunities for collaboration, thereby addressing the current inadequacy of social capital in the teaching profession.By consulting with teachers, clear criteria need to be developed to select instructional specialists and master teachers.
The implementation of a new career structure for teachers poses a significant financial challenge.The costs associated with creating instructional specialist and master teacher roles would be substantial, with government schools estimated to incur a yearly cost of $1.23 billion (Goss et al., 2019, p. 33).This raises questions about the feasibility of such a programme, as well as the potential for competing demands for education funding.Additionally, increasing the earning capacity of teachers may disincentivise pursuing the position of school principal.This, in turn, may necessitate an increase in principal salaries to maintain the attractiveness of this career path.Furthermore, investments in education may be at risk of being reduced or revoked because of shifts in political priorities.These considerations highlight the need for careful planning and evaluation of the costs and benefits associated with implementing a new career structure for teachers.

Conclusion
The challenges facing the teaching profession in Australia require a radical rethink of the career structure to retain experienced teachers and provide career progression opportunities that are competitive with other professions.The implementation of instructional specialist and master teacher roles can support the necessary investment in social and decisional capital, allowing teachers to collaborate and make the best decisions for their students.The investment required to make this happen is substantial, but it is necessary for the future of Australia's economic prosperity.With the COVID-19 pandemic exposing the problems in the teaching profession, there is an opportunity to reset the system to one that promotes social and decisional capital in addition to human capital.It is vital that policymakers work together to implement the necessary changes to ensure that Australia's education system is not up for partisan debate and that progress is consistent even as policy priorities shift.

Declaration of Conflicting Interests
The author declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship and/or publication of this article.

Figure 2 .
Figure 2. Growth Rates of Metro and Regional and Remote ITE Commencements (both Part-Time and Full-Time).Source: Data obtained from AITSL (2017).

Figure 5 .
Figure 5. Eightieth Percentile of Total Yearly Income of Full-Time Workers Holding a Bachelor's Degree, by Field of Study, 2016.Source: Goss et al. (2019).

Figure 6 .
Figure 6.High-Achieving Young Australians' Ranking of Career Considerations in Order of Importance, Relative Score.Source: Goss et al. (2019).

Figure 7 .
Figure 7. Difference in the Number of Hours Australian Teachers Spend on Tasks Compared to the OECD Average.Source: Data obtained from OECD (2019).

Figure 8 .
Figure 8. Grattan Institute Proposal of New Roles to Increase the Earning Capacity Within Pedagogical Roles.Source: Goss et al. (2019).

Table 1 .
Discrepancies in 'Out-of-Field' Teaching Data Due to Semantic Differences.

Table 2 .
Outcomes Based on Differing Levels of Human and Social Capital.